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ADVERTISEMENTS. 


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THE BOOK 


OF 


ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS, 


OF 


EUROPE AND AMERICA. 


TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH 


OF 


EDWARD FOUCAUD. 


NEW EDITION, WITH A SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER ON AMERICAN 
MECHANICS AND THEIR INVENTIONS. 


EDITED BY 


JOHN FROST, LL. D. 


HARTFORD: 
PUBLISHED BY W. J. HAMERSLEY. 


LIBRARY. 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 





Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845, by 
JOHN FROST, 


In the office of the Clerk of the District Court of the United States in and for 
the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 





CONTENTS. 





InTRoDUCTION : 
Fo Working MoH ose. cccdscsesevsssicsénccceescecs = esePOpe9 
Early State of the Mechanic Arts...sseceseceesocsscessersoes 15 


Cuaprer I.—The Gobelins.........csscesccecccrcccceecceccscssess 22 
Fi -——-Glass .. os 00 cackns capewnncnd btacanpipdeiale swan cap yes a6 
111.—Porcelain, Steel, Tin, &c....-cecccccccesccccccccssscees 32 
IV.—Ebony-work, Locks, Sculpture, Architecture, and various 

Wipe iiss ds couk Gye aa cad nanan nin? setdng 
Vi Printing .. cece secccccccvcvevesesesoseccsscosscssece 40 
VI Shea occ es ccc cccr cece cccccese Sexsnacasetngvecesen, 43 
WHT. —Aitornate. soe occ ee eke cde cageshccsceecorevceseece 49 
VIIT.—Riquet’s Catal... cece ccccvccscccccccctecccccccsescees OL 
1X.—The Lightning-rod........-...+- ede eeccns Gnemecceneeds oO 
Ke —BaOons . oi rcvcccscvecvonesevcsseesunevavsaceosecce OF 
Bh P BTMODICL, « 60.6 ccc eyed stescnpssqscgecsseucescatpoess: GO 
XII.—Lamps....... dee Ke bawnmnie rE Rey Pe ee | 
XIUL.—Chemistry.......e.ecceeeees oe decccececececcccccess 65 
XIV.—Progress of the Arts—Works in Iron........essseesee205 68 
XV.—Bréguet..... ewe be was'see ova Gevedeeseus coccccccscece 10 
XVI.—Working in Wood........+.00+ Wareactvcsceuarcnascs. ae 
XVII.—Manufacturing Improvements—Jacquard..-esseeeeeeesee. 78 
XVIII.—Optical Instruments—Pianos.......seesecesecesceessees 82 
XIX.—Automata........... Adee ak Chesotcasetocnsesracecnde OO 
XX.—The Telegraph...... i bwevecnie Sr'ccgabonceoncacscewenes OE 
XXI.—Galvanic Battery—Voltaic Pile—Magic Lantern—Panorama 93 
XXII.—The Balloon and Parachute.....cccccscccccccecesesces OF 
XXIIT.—Institutions for educating the Blind.....eseseseseeceees 99 
XXIV.—Rochefoucauld..... SbeWSUCeRAbewaswtebssecweedepareee LOM 
XXV.—Bookbinding—Lithography......ssccesecesccescesssees 105 
a? (5) 


vi 7 CONTENTS. 


XXVI—Steam Power—Manufacture of Sugar ........seeeeseee0+ 109 
XXVII.—Architecture of Dwelling-houses—Fortifications ...... cose 113 
XXVIII.—Improvements made in Dyeing by Berthollet—His Heroism 
—Vaccination in France—Agriculture.......++seeee++ 117 
XXIX.—Lepaute—Clock and Watch-making—Julien Leroy—Pierre 
Leroy ..-svsvccevccccecesteresecescvvcscscssvesess haw 
XXX.—Lamps—Artificial Limbs, &Ci esses ies eee cece eeccccccvee 125 
AXXT.—Paper and Printitig.. 0.0. cue ccts ces vecscccccavevsvess Idd 
XXXI1.—Weights and Measures «.4...cscccccscccsescccscsescces 140 
XXXIII.—The Conservatory of Arts and Trades ......ee.eeeeeees -- 143 
MXKIV.—Iron Bridges... .0..0ccc0 ccssncscvccee os 98 ee a Rance ane 
XXXV.—Influence of Chaptal upon the Arts .....sse+seeeeeeeeces 149 
KXXVI—Napoleon ....scsseesceseceeseccencecsecescccscseses JOT 


BAAVIT—Shawls ....ccccccvesccess ne Mubeceiaaea Wise ak ¢.0:t RR 
XXXVIII.—The Simplon a Mount Cénis ........00.000- ring ae Ree 176 
XXXIX.—Maelzel’s Automata ..........- kiss hae bane 5 Ws keto nah eal 181 
XL.—Calicoes and other Textile Fabrics ...........+eeee: dice 


XLI.—The Steam-Engine—Safety-Lamp—Stanhope Printing-Press 195 
XLII.—Monge, the Geometrician Seer reese eseeees Ot heees tees essene 203 


XLIII.—Gold and Silver ..... Soh bb aOR wie, Aue eS SAR Ae 207 
Ala Verrpevres Chima, G66. 2 ces cesses ceccccnsacccceceenesceess oma 
XLV.—Public Improvements .....cececececceccccevceecee epics Mae 
Ra OREO OVARIES oo 65.55 va dee seas be canes aves weqere 229 
XLVII.—Agriculture .....sseeseeececscccesecceceretouscsseeans ood 
XLVI1I.—Chevallier ........ccccececoes ER ERS 
XLIX—Manufactures—Richard LADO ca cind betes Uneotatsenseeee 
L.—The Catacombs........ $ HGin ig wale eh moe 9.0 dae ae ele ebse a: Oe 


LI.—Celebrated Mechanics — National Reverses — Napoleon’s 
DIGWMERE sos £00 6X 008d tne 0 binns 00044 s0eh sup Sepeebe © 952 


LII.—The Restoration .....+eeeeeeeseee vee Ske ee a 6 oy's eR «+ 256 
LIII.—Alimentary Arts .eeccesssecccevecscccccccccssssereses COU 

ie LIV.—Cabinet-making ......-++.+- ec ecenececesors pcvcecaces 200 
SURE EC Ie ecitcy geied POM ER ORTON, reals «0 272 
LVI.—Bronzes «...++eeeesscceees Coecidoncvasonncepctepaapnn wie 
LVII —Carpets—Farniture-Stuffs—Wall-Paper, Sc. SC. sesc0e00% 280 


LVIII.—Ornamental Arts, Woollen Stuffs, &c. ....0eseeeecee eeee 280 
LIX.—Cashmere Shawls, &c. ....ssseccecsccccccccceccvesvcess SOU 
LX.—Horology—Optical Instruments, &c. ...+eeeceeecesserees 291 
LXI.—American Mechanics and their Inventions ...... ne reres COL 


<li t inal “itt 
i ve ) 


@ me Ay Se a Fin SS A 














Peter the Great. 


—= pe 
INTRODUCTION. 


TO WORKING-MEN. 


mpF HE celebrated Lamennais has said: “The me- 
> ES \® chanic rises before day, lights his little lamp, and 

labours diligently to gain a livelihood for himself 
and his children.” When Lamennais inscribed 
PLS thissentence in his admirable Words of a Believer, 
he gave a complete summary of a working-man’s life. 


Work, work on, work ever: such is the inscription which glit- 
(9) 





10 INTRODUCTION. 


ters on the standard of every mechanics’ association.—At the 
first glance, such an existence wears a melancholy aspect; but 
soon, in enlarging its objects, and in consecrating all its hours to 
laborious occupation, it adds a new and continually increasing 
lustre to the already brilliant crown of industry. 

I have thought it a great and honourable task, to write the 
history of the mechanic, the humble and modest annals of the 
working-man, who has devoted‘all his faculties to manual labour ; 
and I think this task will be appreciated by all, because it is . 
great; understood by all, because it is honourable. 

I had originally divided this work into three great histo- 
rical periods :—from the time of Francis the First, to 1789 ;— 
from the Republic to the revolution of 1830,—and from 1830 
to the present day. But at the time of preparing the work, the 
first of these great divisions, although perhaps one of the most 
curious, eluded all research. If we turn to history, we find no- 
thing there. Mechanical ingenuity seems to have had no ex- 
istence in the early ages, or at least an obscure and unimportant 


one. If we seek the date of a disastrous war, the historian is * 


scrupulously exact ; but if we inquire of him a brief account of 
the progress of arts, he is silent, or gives uncertain and incom- 
plete data, as if he were ashamed to enter upon so insignificant, 
a subject. 

From the time of Francis the First until the end of the 
eighteenth century, industry has had no historians. I have not 
therefore been able to enter fully upon my subject, until after 
this epoch, and have been obliged to content myself with giving 
a general sketch of the first memorable advancement of manual 
labour, that queen of nations. 

Let me not be misunderstood. The history I am about to 
publish is not written in a~biographical style; I am fully aware 
that such would be tedious and uninteresting, as well as unne- 
cessary. The dlustrious mechanics will contain an account of 
the labourer at his work-bench, tools in hand, and every piece 
of handicraft whose object has been the improvement of any one 


INTRODUCTION. 11 


art will be here recorded ; and if the subject sometimes diverges 
into the privacy of families, it will be but for the sake of casting 
a few flowers on the lonely path of some who have been most 
unjustly the victims of adversity. 

When an architect has decided upon a plan for the foundation 
of his edifice, he reflects long and well upon it, lest it should 
present to the eye of an observer any defect in the arrangement ; 
nor is he satisfied until the slightest details harmonize and form 
-a perfect whole. In striving to bring my work to perfection, a 
work of a popular nature, and one conceived in the liberal and 
progressive spirit of the age, I have deemed it advisable to give 
a place in it to every man of low birth, who, by manual labour, 
by deeds of generosity or of self-devotion, has rendered his name 
distinguished. Such are the c//ustrious mechanics. 

Thus, side by side with the mechanic Jacquarel, the agricul- 
turist Graugé, &c., the reader will find the illustrious Ney, 
Duke of Elchingen, and Prince of Moscowa, entitled in battle, 
the bravest of the brave; Lannes, the dyer’s apprentice, who, 
after enjoying all the grades of military honour, was made Duke 
of Montebello by Napoleon; Augereau, general of the Empire, 
son of a Paris fruit-seller; Bernadotte, son of the humble citi- 
zen of Bearn, placed upon the throneof Sweden, under the name 
of Charles John; Murat, the intrepid soldier, who woke up one 
morning King of Naples—he, the child of the tavern-keeper ! 
and numbers of others. 

Other names will also be registered in our work, names not 
less known, nor less beloved by the people. 

Monthyon, for instance, the beneficent man, whose devotion 
to the virtuous and meritorious classes was so great. 

Jacques Lafitte, who, previous to becoming the aid and sup- 
port of the necessitous, understood by experience the pains and 
penalties of manual labour. 

Neither shall I omit to mention those who have made a noble 
use of hereditary or acquired wealth, by devoting it to the suc- 
cour of the labouring classes, at periods of public distress. At 


12 INTRODUCTION. 





- ——— — = 
ee 
EEE 


eas OSes SS Qala 


Peter the Great at Saardaam. 


the head of these stands the Jittle blue cloak. The illustrious 
mechanics will be, according to the “ Siécle,”’ a sort of Pantheon 
of the working classes, and the benefactors of industry. 

There are two illustrations of our subject. One consists of a 
rich man who voluntarily gives up a portion of his time to the 
exercise of manual labour. Among these we may enumerate 
Peter the Great, who, a hatchet on his shoulder, and the broad 
belt of a slave round his waist, repaired to a timber-yard, at 
Saardaam, to learn stone-cutting and carpentry. 

Let us enter a work-room. A bench with richly carved legs 
stands in front of an open window, whose blue silk curtains are 
confined by cords of gold. On this bench glitter ivory-handled 
tools, inlaid with gold. Arm-chairs and sofas, of splendid form 
and materials, give the place the air of the boudoir of a lady of 
sunk. Two men, whose hands are carefully covered with gloves, 
are engaged in examining a lock: one has the common courtier 
face, which always wears a mingled expression of devotion and 
servility: the other has a noble countenance, a royal one, al- 
though it expresses no great firmness of character. This work- 
room is that of the locksmith Louis XVI. 


INTRODUCTION. 18 


So much for the first illustration. 

The other consists in a daily, an hourly, a momentary labour. 
The man who leads this life wears no gloves; his hands are 
hardened, his face is care-worn. Look for no luxury in his little 
room with its bare walls, no silk curtains on his little window. 

Which of these examples does the most honour to the arts? 

The white arid perfumed hands of the nobleman of rank are 
in no wise better in the sight of God than the coarse and black- 
ened ones of the common labourer. 

Think not that the name of one of the nobles of the earth can 
ennoble labour ; it may give it a temporary sort of vogue, among 
courtiers, but this is all; without it, the art would have pros- 
pered as well, perhaps a little later, but that is all. 

About to begin my work, enveloped as it was in a cloud of 
difficulties, I hesitated ...my thoughts refused to follow my 
pen. In fact, in the laborious life of the mechanic, I beheld but 
one long well-beaten track, one continual belief, one melancholy 
consolation, and these three had one object . . . that of incessant 
labour. But soon, in full view of the physical and moral suffer- 
ings of the working classes, a strong desire to repair a public in- 
justice inspired me with courage to complete my task. I had 
asked myself the question, ‘‘ Why should not the working-man 
enjoy equal privileges with the man of opulence?”’ It was in 
answering this question that difficulties arose ; and in this state 
of indecision, mistrusting my own, perhaps too youthful powers, 
I applied for assistance to one of the greatest of modern philan- 
thropists. The following is the answer I obtained: 

Paris, October 25, 1838. 

Str:—You have done me the honour to inquire if I would 
consent to allow a history of dlustriows mechanics to be pub- 
hshed under my auspices. 

I thank you for the sentiment which has induced you to offer 
me this dedication. You have believed, and justly, I am sure, 
that such a subject would excite my sympathy ; on this, trust me, 
you may depend. 

2 


14 INTRODUCTION. 


You will have neéd of great labour, in seeking out the mate- 
rials for your work. The life of the mechanic is passed in the 
obscurity of his work-shop, an obscurity too profound to have 
ever attracted the attention of the historian. Iam nevertheless 
convinced that, in this humble existence, there are often prodigies 
of industry and of virtue, requiring only a skilful interpreter, to 
be appreciated and to become useful as public examples. Le this 
interpreter, sir, and I do not hesitate to predict your success. 

Believe me, sir, in assuring you of my highest regard, 
J. LArirre. 


The corner-stone was thus laid; but this was not enough; I 
had yet still to collect my materials, and arrange them with 
care and order. The better to accomplish the difficult task I had 
undertaken, I sought out a few names highly eminent in science, 
and now inscribe upon the frontispiece of a book dedicated to la- 
bourers, the names of MM. Charles Dupin, Blanqué the elder, 
and Arago. Under such auspices, let the c/ustrious mechanics 
walk proudly, for a crown is on their brow. 








ISTORY teaches us on every page, that 
the mechanic arts, in their progressive ad- 
vancement, have kept pace with the vari- 
oushuman sciences. To be assured of the 
truth of this fact, we have only to refer 
: to the epoch immediately. preceding that 
called the Revival of Learning, that is to say, the thirteenth 
and fourteenth centuries. At that period, the number of the 
principal mechanical or laborious professions, did not amount to 
more than one hundred. A list of these, extracted from various 
old documents, and interspersed with remarks, will give the reader 
an idea of the social condition of our forefathers; and in comparing 
it with our own, he will perceive the vast improvements made by 
the French in the useful arts, during the last five hundred years. 





Bakers, Retailers of bread, salt, salt fish, fruits 
Millers, ’ and garden stuffs, 
‘€orn-Factors, Gaugers, 

Measurers of Grain, Brewers, 

Criers, Innkeepers. 


In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, all trades, being 
(15) 


. 2 
16 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


kept in check by the limited wants of the people, were carried 
on independently of each other. The necessity for co-operation 
had not yet made itself felt. The baker baked his bread and 
sold it, with the sole ambition of making a few crowns. The 
miller and brewer were contented to make or sell their articles, 
without reflecting that flour and beer were susceptible of a high 
degree of improvement. All were in a state of apathy which 
was truly deplorable. 

The innkeeper alone was freed from this slavery. In con- 
tinual contact with all classes of society, he soon learned to be all 
things to all men; for from the working-man to the noble, the 
man-at-arms to the monk, all ranks gathered round the table in 
his drinking-room, where familiar conversation and drink brought 
themyto one level. 


Plumbers, Joiners, 

Farriers, Wire-drawers, 

Ironmongers, Makers of iron bucklers, 

Blacksmiths, Nail-makers, 

Locksmiths, Makers of brass and copper bucklers, 

Carpenters, Armourers, 

Stone-cutters, Furbishers, 

Masons, Bone and coral head-makers, 

Cutlers, Coral and jet bead-makers, 
Goldsmiths. 


' The armourer has been long out of date. The hauberk was 
a coat of mail of polished iron, with sleeves and a throat-piece ; 
this, in those days, completed the armour of a knight. Bead- 
makers, now called chaplet-makers, were much in vogue in the 
fourteenth century. Few trades were so profitable, and the 
bead-maker was distinguished above other mechanics, by a pecu- 
liar grace and affability. A lady of rank thought it no degrada- 
tion to rein in her white palfrey before the sculptured panels of 
his door; the young knight hastened his steps upon hearing 
that Master Such-an-one had finished a rich rosary. 

For religion was in all hearts then; and one universal belief; 
and smiles from red lips mingled with the gold that paid for am- 


EARLY STATE OF THE MECHANIC ARTS. 17 


ber, jet, and coral chaplets, and thoughts of love would some- 
times light in the strangest manner on the string, a as the beads 
were told at vespers. 

The goldsmith was not less esteemed, although a very ‘differ. 
ent man. Grave and distant, he laboured alone in his little 
work-shop, where resounded no songs to the Virgin, but blows 
of the hammer, interrupted by an occasional burst of laughier, 
or a volley of oaths. 

-In all other trades, each individual égplied himself with as- 
siduity, knowing that reward renders labour light. But to.go 
on with our list :— 


Cutters of crystal, Tailors, 
Silver thread-beaters, Silk, velvet, and cloth mercers, . 
Pewter-smiths, Shoe-buckle makers, 
Gold leaf-beaters, Cloth weavers, 
Silk and thread lace-makers, Fullers, 
Silk spinners with large and small Dyers, 
spindles, Manufacturers of Turkey carpets af- 
Silk weavers, ter the Saracen mode. 


Silk fringe-makers, 


Luxury is the offspring of civilization. This truth is the 
more evident, as, in the earliest age of monarchy, those whom 
birth, talents, or military renown had elevated above their fel- 
low-mortals, endeavoured to distinguish themselves by a display 
of magnificence and bounty. Robes of velvet and ermine suc- 
ceeded to those of serge and linen; the breast-plate, incrusted 
with gold and silver, to that of polished iron. As early as the 
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, weavers and drapers made 
great improvements in their respective trades. It is true, their 
stuffs had not the lightness and grace of those of the present 
day, but it is doubtful whether the dandies of the time of Francis 
I. would have consented to exchange their rich and gay costume 
for the plain, dark attire of a modern gentleman. 

Thanks to the custom of the times, the dyer’s purse was never 
empty: there was not then the competition of to-day; every- 
thing had its fixed price. And abundance, the invariable at- 

Q* 


18 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS 


tendant upon a demand for any sort of goods, required a prompt 
payment. A citizen’s house was ornamented with elegantly 
sculptured furniture, and rich carpets. 


Joiners, Ship-painters, 

Cask-makers, Makers of bows and arrows, 

Dress-makers, Makers of saddle-bows, 

Linen-drapers, . Harness-makers, 

Dealers in hemp and thread, Saddlers, 

Dealers in coarse canvass, Tanners, 

Pin-makers, Book-clasp makers, 

Makers of writing tables, Sculptors of images of the saints, 

Mercers, Bit-makers, 

Sheath and case-makers, Dealers in hay, 

Ornamentors of sheaths and Painters of armorial bearings on sad- 
cases, dles, 

Button-makers, — Painters of images of the saints. 


The tournament gave occasion for the display of many of 
these last-mentioned arts. After divine service, on Easter-day, 
whilst the wax-lights on the altar still smoked, and the incense 
lingered in the aisles, the knights assembled in the Place Saint 
Dénis; and all the roads leading to the gates of the city were 
thronged with people. Crowds of gayly equipped lords and 
ladies passed by, to the great delight of the noisy populace. 
Horses, whose rich trappings were dimmed by the moisture from 
their own bodies, impatiently awaited the beginning of the com- 
bats. But the joy of the people was short-lived ; the tournament — 
finished, the conqueror crowned, they returned with slow steps 
to their miserable homes, where want and privation formed a - 
strange contrast to the splendour they had so recently witnessed. 

The church has, in all ages, given profitable employment to 
various arts; such as the making of ornamental book-clasps, 
painting and making of images of the saints, &c. Indeed, no 
lady of rank could say her prayers unless on her knees before | 
an image of the Virgin, or her patron saint, with her hands rest- 
ing upon a missal with silver clasps. 


Dealers in oil, Potters, 
Tallow-chandlers, Makers of pewter vessels, 


EARLY STATE OF THE MECHANIC ARTS. 19 


Comb and lantern makers, Lamp-makers, 

Makers of drinking-cups and por- Sheep-skin shoemakers, 
ringers, Cobblers, 

Furriers, Curriers, 

Ladies’ hat-makers, Garland-makers, 

Bath-keepers, Makers of common cheap hats, 

Barbers, Makers of plumed hats, 

Royal fishermen, Makers of cotton hats, 

Poulterers, _ Dice-makers, 

Purse-makers, Fresh and salt Sshmougers, 

Shoemakers, Cooks. 


Leather shoemakers, 


The fashion of wearing hats ornamented with peacocks’ fea- 
thers has not come down to us, being too inconvenient a one for 
modern habits; for increasing civilization has taught us to pre- 
fer comfort and ease to to all other advantages. ' 

In former times, no one wore a plain hat, and some of the 
ornaments in vogue were undoubtedly in very bad taste, but will 
not excite our surprise more than the pointed shoes of the same 
epoch, shoes consisting of two parts, one covering the whole 
of the instep, the other reaching up to the calf of the leg be- 
hind. It will, of course, be understood that they were peculiar 
to the higher classes; the lower being contented with a sort of 
gaiter of coarse Sather, 

Among the workmen we have enumerated, two have led to 
great evils among mankind: namely, the cook and the dice-maker. 
If it be true, as some philosophers have said, that idleness is the 
mother of all vices, it may, with equal truth, be affirmed, that 
many sins arise from the excitements of the table, and from 
gaming. Among the working classes, the evil passions exert a 
powerful and often a fatal sway. Good-natured, and easily per- 
suaded to follow the example of his associates, the mechanic 
often yields to the seductions of vice. In the fourteenth century, © 
dice-playing was very common, and all ranks of society yielded 
themselves with a sort of frenzy to the reason-destroying passion 
for gambling. ‘The dice-maker became a rich man; the cook 
followed up the rear, and, together, they completed the ruin of 


20 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


numbers. Watchmen found it a difficult matter to maintain 
peace and quiet, for street-brawls-were frequent under cover of 
the darkness of night; nor was it rare for citizens to seek a de- 
serted part of the city at dusk, and settle all disputes with their 
fists. Cavaliers, also, sword in hand, would seek reparation for 
losses at play. 

Two friends would often meet in the little dominion of ten 
feet square, where reigned a despot in the midst of his dishes, 
the skilful preparer of a good dinner, and, seated at his table, 
the dice between them, and a vessel of strong liquor, they would 
pass some time in destroying an old friendship, and getting rid 
of their money. . Fortunate if there ensued no violent combat, 
and if the knife, so lately used for carving the joint of meat, did 
not find its next resting-place in a human heart. 

Civilization made rapid strides under the influence of the 
brilliant light shed upon the world by the invention of Printing. 
People began to feel new wants, and a favourable impulse was 
thus given to the intelligence of the labouring classes, either in 
improving upon what they already knew, or in inventing that in 
which they were deficient; so that from the fifteenth century, 
until the period of our memorable Revolution in 1789, a number 
of trades have been gradually perfected. The following are 
those which have made the greatest progress during that space 
of four centuries. 

Hats were first worn in the country in 1380, under Charles 
VII.; in 1422, they were worn in town, but only in bad wea- 
ther. The first beaver ‘hat was worn by that king on his 
entrance into Rouen, in 1449; it was lined with red velvet, and 
had a piece of gold thread round it. ‘The use of them was in 
some degree abandoned, under Louis XII. ; but Francis I. adopt 
ing it, it became general. Under Henry IV., towards the end 
of the sixteenth century, hats became a very important branch 
of trade. They were not turned up, but lined with fur, and 
trimmed with gold and silver fringes, strings of pearls, and pre- 
cious stones, for persons of rank. A string tied under the chin, 
kept them on. It is worthy of remark, that in Bretagne, the 


THE STOCKING-LOOM. 21 


use of hats was common among priests, as early as the eleventh 
century. 7 

The first pins were fabricated, it is said, in England, in 1576 ; 
but a much better attested fact teaches us, that they were in- 
vented at Alengon, towards the year 1540; where, for a long 
time, more than six thousand workmen have been employed, a 
fact which will cease to astonish when we consider that more than 
eighty millions of pins of all sorts are annually sold_in Paris. 
Formerly ladies made use of wooden skewers to fasten their dresses. 

Although silk was well known and much used in France, in 
the fifteenth century, silk stockings were unheard of, they being 
worn of cotton or woollen, and always of the same colour as the 
dress. Henry II., in 1559, was the first king of France who 
wore knit stockings of silk, made by a woman whose name is 
unknown. 

The stocking-loom was invented by a locksmith of Normandy, 
who sent a pair of stockings made in this manner to Colbert, to 
be transmitted to Louis XIV. Some jealous weavers bribed a 
valet to cut some of the stitches. This mean trick was the cause 
of the rejection of a machine, which the inventor carried to Eng- 
land, where it was eagerly received. _ It was carried back into 
France, in 1656, by Jean Ilindret, who, by a prodigious effort 
of memory, preserved the construction of it. A manufactory of 
stockings of this kind was established under the direction of this 
skilful mechanic, at the Chateau de Madrid, in the Bois de Bou- 
logne. Its success was so great, that, in 1666, Ilindret formed 
a company, which, under the especial protection of the king, ad- 
vanced so rapidly, that six years afterwards a community of 
master-workmen was established. 

It is therefore in vain for the English to boast of this inven- 
tion, and to endeavour to deprive France of the honour of it. It 
is well known that it belongs to a Frenchman, and to one whose 
original profession had no connection with the one adopted by 
him, which proves that he ‘must have been endowed with rare 
intelligence, and increases the regret we cannot help feeling, at 
the obscurity which veils his name. 


yee 
: 
RS 
SS 
Ne 





CHAPTER I. 


" THE GOBELINS. 


> HE water of the Biévre river, which bathes the 
¥ southern extremity of the Faubourg Saint 
Marceau, was, in the fourteenth century, 
considered excellent for dyeing. Numerous 
drapers and dyers established themselves upon 
its banks, their houses and bleach-greens pre- 
senting a most picturesque and pleasing aspect, whilst the waters 
ran of every colour of the rainbow, resembling various strata 


of differently coloured minerals. On its banks may be seen, at 
: (22) 





DYEING AND TAPESTRY. 23 


this day, a modest house of the architecture of the fifteenth cen- 
tury. This building was erected in 1450, by a dyer, whose 
talents gave him a high rank among -his fellow-mechanics: 
the colours he imparted to his cloth were distinguished by their 
uncommon brilliancy. His name was Jean Gobelin. Fashion 
soon attached herself to the work of his industrious hands, and 
his sales were rapid; orders poured in upon him from distant 
places, so that he employed a very large number of workmen. 

Jean Gobelin was.a tall man, with a dignified countenance, 
and a mild disposition. Master of numerous workmen, he was 
also their friend; never forgetting that, whereas he now gave 
his orders, and was obeyed, he had once knelt on the ground, 
and washed the cloth in the waters of the Biévre, with his own 
hands. 

At his death, his son Philibert, and Denise Lebret, his wife, 
carried on the business, and increased the fortune he left them. 
By degrees they acquired the same celebrity, of which also the 

“place, and the hitherto humble little Biévre partook. 

To the Gobelins, succeeded the Canaye family, who did not 
confine their labours to the mere dyeing of scarlet cloth, but also 
wove tapestry ; and were in turn succeeded, in 1655, by a 
Dutchman, named Gluck, and by Jean Liansen, who excelled all 
others. The beauty of his tapestry attracted the attention of 
Colbert, who resolved to put the establishment under the king’s 
special protection, and to employ it in the royal service. only. 
He procured an edict to that effect, in 1667, giving the direction 
of it to Lebrun, Louis XIV.’s first painter. It was in this place 
that were fabricated the splendid tapestries, the admiration of 
all Europe, and which surpass those of the Saracens in beauty of 
design and composition. 

An important manufactory of carpets of the Flemish kind was — 
established by letters patent which Sully obtained in 1607, and 
of which Mare Comans and Francois La Planche, skilful dyers, 
were made the directors. This manufactory was situated at the 
extremity of the Rue de Varennes, terminating in the Rue de la 


24 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Chaise, now become Rue de la Planche, from the name of one 
of the two directors. The privilege was continued to their chil- 
dren, by Louis XIII., and in 1667, Colbert annexed this esta- 
blishment to that of the Gobelins. Finally, in 1688, Jean Pa- 
pillon invented wall-paper, which has been in common use ever. 
since. 

André Graindorge, a weaver of Caen, in Normandy, was the 
first who ever made figured cloth, representing squares and 
flowers of all sorts upon it. Richard Graindorge, his son, im- 
proved upon his father’s idea, by the representation of animals, 
birds, trees, houses, and even rural scenes, such as groups of 
hay-makers, rustic dances, Dutch smoking scenes, &c. He was 
also the originator of the use of table-cloths and napkins. His 
son, Michel, established manufactories in various parts of France, 
where damasks became a common article. 

Louis XI. established silk factories at Tours in 1470. Ne- 
vertheless, it was not until the sixteenth century that this branch 
of trade became a profitable one. Henry IV. established silk 
factories at Paris, in the Louvre itself, and in the Chateau de 
Madrid. It is to this prince, and to his minister, Sully, that 
Lyons owes her first establishment of this kind on a large scale. 
Henry engaged men to go annually into Spain, in search of silk- 
worms’ eggs, and planted a great number of white mulberry 
trees In nurseries, in the neighbouring parishes. + 

In accordance with the solicitations of the manufacturers, he 
forbade the use of foreign silks; but revoked the edict, upon the 
remonstrances of those of Lyons. 

In 1645, Octavius Meg invented a process for gzving a gloss 
to silk, as it is termed in the manufactories. In 1717, Jurines, 
a master maker of fringes, ribbons, &c., made great improve- 
ments in the art of fabricating silk, and towards the year 1738, 
Falcon was the originator of an ingenious mechanism for allevi- 
ating the weariness attendant upon*the old method of weaving 
thread. 

The making of ribands, ornamental buttons, laces, &c., is a 


EMBROIDERY. 25 


branch of industry which has made a rapid and extensive pro- 
gress up to the end of the eighteenth century; for it was al- 
ways Subject to the ever-varying caprices of fashion. 

M. Peuchet, in his Dictionary of Commercial Geography, 
has given some curious details respecting this art, and although 
entirely of an abstract nature, they occupy too important a place 
in the dominion of industry, to be excluded from our notice. 

“This art,” says this learned writer, “may be traced to the 
most remote antiquity ; the ornaments of the temple, and of the 
priests, at Jerusalem (Exodus xxviii. 29, and xxxviii. 18, 22), 
belonged to it. The manner in which the precious stones were 
arranged on the breast-plate of the high-priest was a species of | 
embroidering, in the fullest sense of the word: also that on the 
belt (et balteum opere plumarit), on the veil of the sanctuary, 
_and on that of the tabernacle (et in introitu ejus opere pluma- 
rit.) Aholibah was a skilful workman in all sorts of ornaments. 
{Artifexr egregius fuit et polymitarius atque plumarius ex 
hyachinthe purpura vernaculo et bysso.) : 

Moses, in Deuteronomy, after having forbidden the Israelites 
to wear garments composed of a mixture of woollen and linen, 
commanded them to put fringe on the four corners of their robes 
( funiculos in fimbriis per quatuor angulos). Ezekiel, in enu- 
merating the benefits of God, which he reproaches the Israelite 
women with having abused, after mentioning bracelets, neck- 
laces, ear-rings, and ornaments of riband for the head, speaks of 
their robes of fine linen dyed and embroidered in diverse colours, 
bysso et polymito et multis coloribus. 

Helen, in Homer, embroidered the combats of the Greeks and 
Trojans; and Virgil, imitated by Pliny, in the idea that the 
Phrygians were the inventors of embroidery, calls embroidered 
stuffs Phrygia, Phrygione (et Phrygiam arcanio chlamydem, 
&c.) And Apuleus gave Paris a robe embroidered in different 
colours.”’ 

All authors, acccording to those of Greece and of Rome, at- 

3 


26 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


tribute the invention and the use of striped, painted, and fringed 
clothing, as well as that embroidered or ornamented with gold 
and silver, to barbarous nations. 

This art includes ribbons, bands, artificial flowers, laces, plumes 
of feathers, buttons, frogs, tassels, fringes, and such ornamental 
articles. 








CHAPTER II. 
GLASS. 


LASS was discovered at an early epoch; 
many improbable stories are handed down 
to us on this subject. The first regu- 
lar historical record, is that given us by 
the author of Researches among the 
Egyptians; which teaches us,-that at 
Diospolis, cups were made and glass cut, 

and gilded with admirable skill; colours were even made to 

change as you looked at them, from one tint to another; and 

Winckelman, in his History of Art, adds that the ancients un- 

derstood making glass much better than the moderns. However 

that may be, the Phcenicians for a long time monopolized all the 
trade in glass, and according to Pliny and Strabo, the manufac- 
tories at Sidon were in a very advanced state, and those of 

Alexandria, under the Ptolemies, enjoyed an equal fame. The 

art of glass-making passed from Italy to France, and later, from 


France to England; that is to say, in 674, at the time of the 
(27) 





28 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


construction of the Abbey of Wiremouth, the church belonging 
to which was built by French masons and architects, after the 
Roman fashion. The French workmen (says the venerable 
Bede) ornamented the windows of the church and monastery 
with glass, and taught the English how to make it. Although 
France at that time had some glass-works, they were not much 
encouraged ; the progress made afterwards is entirely owing to 
Colbert’s efforts. 

As soon as a few improvements in the mode of living taught 
men to replace their open tents by warm houses, the want of 
glass for windows began to be felt; for without it, it was im- 
possible to exclude the cold and the inclemencies of the wines 
without equally excluding the light of day. 

But the discovery of glass remedied this difficulty. 

In 1539, one morning in May, the inhabitants of the town of 

Saintes were surprised and displeased, to find that a new family 
_ had come to establish itself among them. But dislike soon gave 
place to admiration; the inhabitants of Saintes learned that the 
head of the family was named Bernard Palissy, a man renowned 
‘for his paintings on glass, and from that moment all feelings of 
enmity and jealousy disappeared. Perhaps the people thought 
of the windows of their poor church. Matters went on very 
well for some time, until Palissy, now having been two years at 
Saintes, saw a cup of some sort of composition, very beautifully 
turned and finished, and became immediately possessed with the 
idea of making a vase of similar construction. 

Under the influence of this idea, he abandoned the employment 
which had before supported his family, spending all his time in 
kneading earth, and afterwards baking it. “But his first endea- 
vours were unfortunate, and poverty with all its horrors entered 
his house. No matter, Palissy struggled on, sustained by a 
hope that, although a beggar to-day, to-morrow he may have 
more gold than his strong-box will hold. But many to-morrows 
came, and no gold: his wife complained bitterly, and his children, 
their eyes streaming with tears, clasped their thin hands and im- 


PALISSY’S DISCOVERY. 29 


plored him to resume his old profession of painting on glass, by 
the profits of which they had lived so comfortably, but all in 
vain. ‘Twenty years passed in this manner; Palissy remaining 
faithful to that one idea, although every one around him laughed 
at him and treated him as if he were insane, and some even 
went so far as to accuse him of sorcery and forgery. In the midst 
of all this, an apprentice who had been with him for a long 
time, suddenly declared his intention of leaving him, and claimed 
his wages. Poor Palissy, stripped of every thing he ever pos- 
sessed, is obliged to give him a part of his own clothing. Left 
to himself, he then directed his steps to his oven, which was in 
the cellar. Alas! it wanted wood! What could he do? He 
ran into the garden and pulled down all the trellis-work, and 
the fire was soon blazing; but this did not last long.—Palissy, 
beside himself with anxiety, took one article of furniture after 
another, and threw them on the fire, in spite of the entreaties 
of his family ; and at last success crowned his efforts. A long 
cry of joy echoed through the vaulted cellar, and made itself 
heard through the whole house; and when his wife came running 
down, expecting to find a raving maniac, she saw her husband 
standing motionless, his eyes fixed in amazement on a piece of 
pottery of splendid colours, which he held in both hands. 

The genius of invention, a long time deaf to his cries, had at 
last laid the crown of success upon his head. Success, that 
magic sound to the ear of genius. Palissy had the faith which 
never deceives. 

The rumour of his discovery spread far and wide. Poverty 
fled from his house. Henry III. sent for him to Paris, and gave 
him lodgings in the Tuileries; it was here that he obtained a 
patent for the invention of Royal rustic pottery of allsorts. He - 
was now known by the name of Bernard of the Tuileries. 

A skilful workman, Palissy also understood medicine, paint- 
ing, and sculpture, handling equally well.the pen and pencil, and 
possessing a depth of thought never existing but in a man of 
genius. 


3 * 


30 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


The edict against the Protestants, published in 1559, by 
Henry III. at Ecouen, did not spare Palissy. Professing the re- 
formed religion, he was dragged to the Bastile, where he died 
in 1589. Henry III. went to see him in prison, and told him 
that he was afraid he would be obliged to leave him in the hands 
of his enemies. 

‘You have said repeatedly, sire, that you pity me,” replied 
Palissy ; “‘ but I sincerely pity you. Be obliged!—that is no royal 
expression ; I will teach you a kingly language. Nor you, nor 
‘all your people shall oblige me to bend my knees before statues. 
No! I will die first.” } 

The invention of the fine opaque and solid enamels is due to the 
French. John Toutin, a jeweller of Chiteaudun, in 1630, was 
the first, it is said, who made enamelled jewels. This style of 
painting, improved by Gribelin, his pupil, and afterwards by 
Dubré and Morliere, whose rings and watches were much sought 
after, led to the idea of attempting portraits in enamel, the exe- 
cution of which was in a somewhat different style from those 
done at Limoges under Francis I. 

Enamel is a particular preparation of glass, to which various 
colours are given. ‘The art of enamelling on earthenware and 
metals, is very ancient. According to the early historians, the. 
bricks of which the walls of Babylon were constructed, were 
enamelled with various figures. But this art remained long in 
a simple state, from which it did not rise until the time of Ra- 
phael and of Michael Angelo. 

The art of making looking-glasses originated at Venice, which 
city furnished all Europe with them, until Colbert persuaded 
many of the workmen, who were Frenchmen, to return to France, 
and sent them to the manufactory founded, in 1651, by Eustache 
Grandmont and Jean Antoine Autonneuil, which was in a lan- 
guishing condition, not being able to compete with the Vene- 
tians.. He built the large houses used for that purpose, in the 
Rue de Reuilly, at a great expense, and made the whole estab- 
lishment a royal one, so that, from that time, the French look- 


GLASS. 31 


ing-glasses were equal to the Italian, and some of them are su- 
perior in size and perfection to any in the world. A workman 
named Thevart, become master, in 1688, made great improve- 
ments, especially in the size. The establishment was then re- 
moved from Paris to Saint Gobin, in Picardy, where it now is, 
and where eight hundred workmen are employed. 


irra Rees 
Ki \ aes 

i i i” I ; » 
N\A am 





CHAPTER III. 


PORCELAIN, STEEL, TIN, &e 


HE art of making porcelain originated ages ago. 
The Egyptians were acquainted with it, and we 
know that they. used the same process as we do; 
so that it is probable that the art passed into 
» Asia, and thence to China, where porcelain, called 
eg was common, as well as in Japan, four hundred and fifty 
years before Christ. The Portuguese imported this beautiful 
manufacture into Europe in 1517; they called it loea, whilst 
we, somewhat strangely, have borrowed their word porcelana, 
signifying a cup or porringer. ‘The Chinese kept the precious 
composition a secret; but Baron Boeticher, chemist at the court 
of the Elector of Saxony, discovered it, in the seventeenth 
century, by combining different earths for the purpose of making 
crucibles. ‘The rumour spread into France and England, where 
every chemist set to work to make porcelain, but in vain: until, 
at last, Mr. Tschirnhausen discovered a composition, to all ap- 
pearances, similar to that in Saxony. He confided it to Mr. 
Homberg, in France, but they both died without having made 
the secret public. Reaumur guessed at the articles which must 
enter into the composition of the Chinese porcelain, and pub- 
lished some very just ideas concerning them, andethe means of 
employing them. He made some, imitating the Saxon exactly, 
and thus gave France a useful art, as well as a new branch of 
commerce ; and it was according to his directions, that the Mar- 
quis of Fulvy, governor of Vincennes, established there a por- 
celain manufactory, in 1738; but the success attending it was 
not equal to the zeal of the institutor, for the marquis lost all 
his fortune by it. In 1759, Louis XV. purchased the now al- 


most desolate establishment, and transferred it to Sévres. Mac- 
(32) 





STEEL—TIN, 7 33 


quer and Montigny, excellent chemists, enriched it by a compo- 
sition, uniting all the qualities necessary for making first-rate 
porcelain, being no other than the kaolin and the petunse of the 
Chinese earths, of an extreme whiteness, discovered in 1757 by 
M. Vilaris, at Saint Yriex, in Limousin. The manufactory at 
Sévres then obtained a great celebrity, which it still maintains. 

M. Reaumur is also the inventor of the discovery of turning 
iron into steel, a secret, before his time, utterly unknown in 
France. Tin was also first made under his directions. 

This illustrious man, not yet content with all he had done for 
the human race, applied himself to the construction of a thermo- 
meter, which will maintain, in all places, equal degrees of heat 
and cold. This instrument bears his name, and is an imperish- 
able monument to his-glory. 

It is said that tin was invented in Bohemia, towards the year 
1610, by a priest of that country. Colbert introduced a num- 
ber of those engaged in the manufacture of it into France, where 
they established a manufactory at Chesney, in Franche Comté, 
and at Beaumont Ferriere, in Nivernois; but at the death of 
the minister, not being well protected, and wanting in union 
among themselves, they left the country. At last, under the 
regency, in 1717, two manufactories were established at Stras- 
burg, and at Massevaux, in Alsace; and successively at Bain, 
at Moramberg, and at Charité Sur Loire, where rapid improve- 
ments were speedily made in the malleability, the purity, and 
solidity of tin. 











The Saxon Tower or Church Gate at Bury. 


CHAPTER IV. 


EBONY-WORK, LOCKS, SCULPTURE, ARCHITEC. 
TURE, AND VARIOUS OTHER ARTS. 


ORMERLY the name of ebony was given to nu- 
’ merous beautiful woods, and the workmen em- 
ployed upon them were called Ebenists. Besides 
the common black ebony, there was red, yellow, 
“ym purple, &c. Although this is no longer the case 
at the present day, the name of Ebenzst is still applied in France 
to those who work in mahogany, walnut, ash, and elm. 


This is an ancient art; it was first practised in Asia, and after- 
(34) 





LOCKS, 35 


wards in Greece, at the time of Alexander’s victories; it soon 
spread to Italy, and was much esteemed at Rome under the em- 
perors, and highly thought of by all rich citizens. After the 
disorders caused by the northern invasion, it gained renewed 
splendour in the fifteenth century, contributing much to the 
beauty of the Vatican; whilst in all other countries the furniture 
was ugly and ungraceful. It was not until the end of the reign 
of Francis I., that it was cultivated with success in France, and 
in the beginning of the last century, this art underwent many 
changes. ‘The French ebenists, from that time, have surpassed, 
in good taste and in talent, those of all Europe, and even of 
England, the only country which ever disputed the pre-eminence 
with them. ' 

In ancient times, there were no locks on the doors. ‘* People 
were contented,” says Milline, “ with a fastening of string.” 
Although this was a poor and ineffectual mode, a better one was 
soon.adopted. A bolt was placed transversely across.the door, 
on the inside, (as is still done in some parts of the country :) in 
the bolt was fixed an oval piece of iron which served to. fasten 
the door. This piece of iron was hollowed, and a sort of screw 
answered the purpose of a key. In order to shut or open the 
door from the outside, the hand was put through a hole made 
over the nut or screw. 

The Lacedemonian lock was invented soon after. - This is 
formed of a piece of hard wood, six inches high, four inches 
broad, and one inch thick. In this are made four or five lon- 
gitudinal grooves or mortises, three and a half inches long, half 
an inch broad, and three-quarters of an inch deep, which are oc- 
cupied by tenons or forelocks of hard and heavy wood, moving 
freely and independently of each other. The bolt is arrested by 
these tenons, which, descending vertically, oppose its exit ; which 
cannot be effected except by raising the tenons with the key. 

A great improvement was afterwards made in locks, by placing 
the bolt in aniron capsule, for greater safety. The same may be 


36 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


said of the Lacedemonian key. Sometimes a second bolt was 
placed on the inside, and could not be opened externally. 

After the return of the expedition to Egypt, wooden locks of 
great strength and solidity, although roughly made, were ex- 
hibited. Similar ones have been found in Pompeii and Her- 
culaneum. ‘This same lock has been handed down from anti- 
quity, for more than four thousand years, in Egypt, where it is 
still used for the gates of houses, cities, and public-places. The 
Turks, Arabs, and Greeks of the Archipelago, have also adopted 
it. In France, great improvements have been made in locks in 
the last hundred years. Destriches, Damour, and Gerard, have 
obtained a great reputation in this line all over Europe. 

M. Charles Dupin relates the following facts. 

Locks were formerly unknown to the lower classes. Every 
one understands that little Red Ridinghood’s grandmother called 
to her from within, “Pull the bobbin, and the latch will fly up ;” 
and as with this old woman, so was it with all. At the present 
day the peasant has a much surer method of securing his doors 
and windows. 
| Formerly, in city houses, the windows, which opened like a 
folding-door, were closed at the foot by an upright bolt of wood ; 
but this has long been replaced by one of iron. 

Watch and clock-making, the origin of which is unknown, re- 
appeared in Europe in 760, and continued until the twelfth cen- 
tury, with no very great improvements until the discovery of the 
pendulum by Galileo, which being applied to it in the beginning 
of the seventeenth century, there arose a spirit of emulation 
among the clock and watch-makers, such as Lebon,. Leroy, 
Gaudron, Enderlin, Thiout, Rivez, Duterbre, Romilly, Lepaute, 
Berthoud, &c., who added new discoveries, giving to F rance a 
just renown. | 

The goldsmith’s art, that of working in gold and silver, ob- 
tained great importance in Europe at the time of the discovery 
of America, which circumstance provided an increase of metals. 


dh 


SCULPTURE AND MASONRY. 37 


Nevertheless, it -was not until the middle of the seventeenth 
century that it rose to any height in France. 

Carving, or sculpture in bas relief, on metals, has improved 
greatly. Ballin and Thomas Germain were already very skilful 
in this at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and acquired 
an incontestable celebrity by their beautiful handiwork. 

We cannot help feeling some surprise when we consider the 
very trifling progress made in masonry, not in its principles, but 
in their execution, which may be said to have long remained 
Stationary. Observe the manner in which foundations are laid, 
and displaced earth removed ; the scarcity of materials, and the 
difficulty of transporting them from place to place. Every thing 
is done by the strength of the arm, or by means which should 
belong to an uncivilized nation, whilst, four thousand years ago, 
the Egyptians, and other nations, now extinct, used machines 
for removing and lifting stones, earth, &c. Nevertheless, a very 
mediocre intellect could supply this art with numerous improve- 
ments, valuable for saving time and labour. 

Walls, among the ancients, ‘were built of large stones, or 
bricks, two deep, and the interstices filled up with fragments of 
stone, &c., rudely thrown in, and which were united in a mat, 
with mortar. Vitruvius recognises two species of masonry, 
the inertum, which he regards as ancient, and the reticulatum, 
which he indicates as in use in his day, which was twenty-seven 
years before Christ. In fact, the aqueducts of Lyons and Frejus, 
and most of those in the vicinity of Rome, the mausoleum of 
Augustus, &c., are constructed in this manner. At the present . 
day, we sacrifice solidity to beauty of appearance. 

The machine for raising the waters of the Seine to the top 
of the Marly mountain, carrying it down again, and thence to 
Versailles, is, undoubtedly, the greatest invention of the time 
of Louis XIV. The elevated situation of Versailles, in the de- 
partment of Seine-et-Oise, presented innumerable difficulties to 
the accomplishment of this vast project. But the age of Louis 
XIV., so fertile in superior minds, resolved one of the greatest 


38 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS 





Rennequin Sualem. 


problems in mechanics, and proved that there is no limit to hu- 
man genius. 

It was begun in 1676, and put in activity in 1682. It cost 
7,000,000 livres, and the maintenance of it amounted to 71,016 
livres. 

The mechanism of this admirable work is the conception of a 
carpenter of Liege, who could not read or write, named Renne- 
quin Sualem, from whom the idea was taken by the Chevalier 
Deville, who was acquainted with Sualem’s talents. 

‘When this poor man came to intrust his project to him, he 
hastened with it to Paris, and offered the plan to Colbert, who 
shortly afterwards, by dint of intrigues and impudence, caused 
it to be believed that he was the inventor, and that the mechanic 
had been a passive instrument in his hands. So it is that the 
poor are sometimes the victims of the rich. 


THE MARLY HYDRAULIC MACHINE. 39 


Sualem retired to Bougival, where he had a house, and there 
terminated a life of bitterness and disappointment. He was 
buried in the church in that place, together with his wife. The 
following is the epitaph on their tombstone. 


s HERE LIE 
The honourable persons, 
ReEnnNEQUIN SUALEM, 
Sole inventor of the Marly machine, 
Who died July 29, 
1708, 
Aged 64 years; 
And of Marre Nove ts, his wife. 
Who died May 4, 
1714, 
Aged 84 years. 

For a long time the Marly machine has been in disuse. It 
began to be observed that the amount of water transmitted de- 
creased daily, whilst the expenses increased. The government 
endeavoured to discover a means of simplifying it, so as to lessen 
the latter. A meeting was held for that purpose in 1783, on 
motion of the Count d’Angivilliers, but with no good result. It 
was not until some years afterwards, that a new and less ex- 
pensive mode of raising water to Versailles was discovered. 





























CHAPTER V. 


PRINTING. 


“}| HE glorious art of printing was invented at Haar- 
lem, in Holland, by Laurentius Coster, who used 
wooden characters. A man named John Geist- 
fleisch, elder brother of Guttemberg, who worked 
as a mechanic under Laurentius Coster, carried away some of 
these types secretly to Mayence, his native place, where Gut- 
temberg, taking advantage of this act of dishonesty, associated 
himself with Faust or Fust, a goldsmith, and began to print, 
aided by a young man, Peter Scheeffer, who invented the use of 
metal types, in 1452, 

Iti is not easy for us to imagine how many difficulties surrounded 
the first attempt at printing. ‘Those who interested themselves 
in it, and printed cheaply, found themselves reduced to great. 
poverty. More than six thousand writers were occupied at 


Paris, in copying and colouring manuscripts. Nevertheless, in 
(40) 





PRINTING. 41 


spite of all impediments, the art acquired great importance, as 
improvement after improvement was added, and success succeeded 
success. Paris beheld many printing establishments spring up 
one after another within her walls. The following is a list of 
the towns in which printing offices were successively established 
in the fifteenth century. 


In 1475 one was established at Laguenais, 


“ 1477 ™ - Angers, 

“ 1479 “« " Poitiers, 

* 1480 ¥ « Langres, 

* 1483 “ “ Rouen and Vienne, (Dauphine,) 
“ 1484 o & “ Toulouse, Troyes, and Caen, 
“ 1486 “ 2 Abbeville, 

“ 1487 ae “ Besancon, 

“ 1488 “ ve Nantes, 

“* 1489 “ es Avignon, 

“ 1490 * ry Dijon and Cleury, 

“« 1491 “ “ Rennes, 

“ 1492 se “ Dole, 

* 1493 “ “a Angouleme and Bourges, 

“ 1496 * & Troyes, 

“ 1497 “ “ Provins, 

& 1499 “ “ Trevier, 

* 1500 = _ Orleans and Perpignan. 


Printing, protected by Louis XI. and Louis XII.,-was in a 
short time powerful enough to resist all the machinations of its 
enemies. Having intellect on its side, it spread over all-Europe 
with marvellous rapidity. The efforts of mind, which had here- 
tofore died unheeded, now spread themselves through the mass 
of the people, enlightening. and improving, where mental dark- 
ness had before prevailed ; but, like all great novelties, printing 
had its detractors. 

Francis the First yielded to the complaints of the malcontents, - 
and, on the 13th January, 1535, ordained the entire suppression 
of all printing in the kingdom, under penalty of hanging; but on 
the 23d of February following, the Father of letters, reflecting, 
perhaps, that there was something tyrannical and odious in such 
a decree, revoked it, and commanded the Parliament to send him 


4 * 


42 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


twenty-four persons, out of whom he would choose twelve, who 
alone should have a right to print such books as should be ap- 
proved and considered necessary, and not new composttions. 

Such was the origin of the royal printing establishment. | Du- 
laure, in his History of Paris, places this institution in the reign 
of Louis XIII. According to him, France owes it to Cardinal 
Richelieu. It is true, it did not flourish until under Louis XIII., 
when it was established in the galleries of the Louvre; but I 
think Francis the First’s edict of the 23d of February, 1539, may 
be considered as the foundation of it. 

In 1642, Sublet, Sieur des Noyes, was made superintendent 
of the royal printing establishment ; Trichet Dufréne, corrector 
of the types, and Cramoisi, printer. During the space of two 
years, seventy large volumes, Greek, Latin, French, and Italian, . 
were issued, and the expenses amounted to more than 300,000 
francs, from 1642 to 1649. 

From that time until 1789, the art of printing barely satisfied 
the wants created by its invention, especially towards the latter 
part of the time which preceded the remarkable epoch of popu- 
lar emancipation. 

In spite of despotism, it laboured without cessation, lending 
its aid to the fury and violence of all parties; and the nearer 
the crisis approached, the more force and activity did it dis- 


play. 





CHAPTER VI. 


STEAM. 


MONG the highly valuable discoveries, we 
must place that of steam, for by its means 
distance is annihilated, trade rendered pros- 
perous, human labour saved, and a new im- 

] portance given to the country. It is a curi- 

43 ous matter to follow the progress of this 

discovery, which is, in a great measure, due 

: to the children of our beautiful France. 

Anthemius, an architect and engineer, under the Emperor 

Justinian, mentioned by Agathias, in his history, book iv., 

having lost a law-suit against his neighbour Tenon, resolved 

upon a singular species of revenge. He filled several large ves- 
sels with water, and closed them very tight: several pipes were 
attached to the covers, which decreased in size as they reached 
upwards. Fire being placed underneath, the steam escaped 
through the pipes in the covers, and not finding a free vent 
above, shook the ceiling and the rafters of his own house, and 
that of Tenon, to such a degree, that the latter left it from fright. 

The power of steam was then known at that time; but the 
application of it, for want of means, was never directed to use- 
ful purposes. Nevertheless, in an article of M. Arago, in the 

Annuairedes Bureaux des Longitudes, for the year 1829, we 

read that, one hundred and twenty years before Christ, Hero, | 


of Alexandria, called the Old, invented an apparatus presenting 
(43) 





44 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


the first application ever made of steam. It bore the name of 
spiritalia seu pneumatica, and is called a reaction machine. 

Under the reign of Louis XIII., a man conceived the project 
of making use of steam, as a motive power, on an extended 
scale; but his genius experienced an oppression of a terrible na- . 
ture. If Cardinal Richeliue is mentioned in history as a capable 
minister, we must not yet forget that there were many victims 
to his pride and obstinacy, whose sufferings have tarnished his 
reputation for skill, and shed a bloody halo round his head. 

The following is a letter addressed by Marion Delorme to 
Cing Mars, the young man who entertained the silly project of 
overturning the cardinal minister :— 


My pear D’Erriat:—Whilst you are forgetting me, at 
Marbonne, absorbed in the pleasures of the court, and of oppos- 
ing M. le Cardinal, I, according to your expressed wishes, am 
doing the honours of Paris to your English lord, the Marquis 
of Worcester. I take him about, or, rather, he takes me about, 
from one curiosity to another. Choosing always the most sad 
and serious, speaking but few words, listening with great atten- 
tion, and fixing his large blue eyes upon every one of whom he 
asks a question, as if he could see into the depths of their souls. 
He is never satisfied with the explanations he receives, and does 
not look upon things exactly as they are shown to him. For 
instance, when we visited the Bic¢tre, he pretended to see marks 
of great genius in a crazy man, whom, if he were not raving, I 
am sure your Englishman would have taken to London, if pos- 
sible, and listened to his nonsense from morning till night. As 
we crossed the yard filled with these creatures, I was half-dead 
with fright, and leaned against my companion. Suddenly an 
ugly face appeared behind the bars, and a hoarse voice ex- 
claimed :— 

“T am not crazy. I have made a discovery which will enrich 

. the country that so violently opposes it.” 


DE CAUS IN THE BICETRE. 45 





itaateegy i -BY 
i! h 





Scene at the Bicetre. 


*‘ What is his discovery ?”’ I asked of the man who showed 
us over the place. 

“ Ah!” exclaimed he, shrugging his shoulders, “something 

very simple, which you would never guess: it is the use of Steam.”’ 

I burst out laughing. 

“‘ His name,”’ continued the keeper, “is Solomon de Caus. 
He came from Normandy, four years ago, to present a memoir 
to the king, on the subject of the marvellous effects to be ob- 
tained by his invention: according to him, machinery could be 
moved by it, carriages propelled, and numerous other wonders 
produced. . . . The cardinal sent away the fool without listen- 
ing to him. But De Caus, undiscouraged, followed him from 
place to place; so that Richelieu, tired of him, had him shut up 


46 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


in the Bic¢tre, where he has now been three years and a half, and 
where he tells every stranger, as he did you, that he is not crazy, 
but that he has made a great discovery. He has even written 
a book on the subject.” | 

And he handed us a book. Milord Worcester took it, and 
after reading some pages, said,— 

«‘ This man is by no means crazy; and in my country, instead 
of shutting him ‘up, we would have made his fortune. Bring 
him bere: I wish to question him.” 

He returned from this conversation with a sad countenance. 

‘‘ He is indeed crazy now,” said he, “misfortune and captivity 
have destroyed his reason for ever; you have made him crdZy ; 
but when you put him in this dungeon, you acute: there the 
greatest genius of your time.” 

Hereupon we took our leave, and since then he can only talk 
of Solomon de Caus. Adieu, my dear and faithful Henry ; come 
back soon, and in the mean time be not too happy there, to pre: 
serve a little love for me. 


Marion DELorME. 


The book shown by the keeper to the Marquis of Worcester, 
was, no doubt, that published by the unhappy Solomon de Caus, 
in 1613, by the title of Considerations of Motive Forces with 
various useful Machines. 

The idea of raising water by means of the elastic force of 
steam, belongs then to Solomon de Caus. Forty-eight years 
later, the Marquis of Worcester endeavoured to appropriate it 
to himself. 

Side by side with the name of De Caus, stands that of Papin, 
the first who constructed a machine in which steam, under a 
high pressure, raised itself into the air after producing the 
desired effect. 'The atmospheric machine of the Englishman, 
Thomas- Newcomen, with the exception of a few trifling via 
ticulars, is precisely the same. 


THE STEAM ENGINE. 47 


The inventor of the steam engine with pistons, Papin, was the 
first man who perceived that steam furnished a simple means of 
creating a vacuum. He was also the first who thought of com- 
bining the action of steam with its powers of condensation. 

- He also proposed steam as a means of propelling vessels forty- 
two years before Jonathan Hull, whom the — consider 
as the inventor. 





CHAPTER VII. ° 


AUTOMATA, 


ESIDES the happy results obtained by the steam 
éngine under the reign of Louis XV., mechanism 
of another kind was carried to a height which it 
\ is difficult for even the imagination to reach. I 
Y speak of Vaucanson and his wonderful automata. 
He From early infancy Vaucanson gave signs of 
a rare intelligence. Brought up by a mother, the occupation of 
whose life was her devotion to him, he was in the habit of 
accompanying her on Sundays to pay visits. 
On one of these occasions the young Vaucanson amused him- 
self with examining, through the cracks in a partition, the me- 
chanism of a clock in an adjoining room. It was the first time 
his attention had ever been directed to the subject, and he ap- 
plied himself to the study of it. The following Sunday, he took 
care to provide himself with a pencil, and in copying what he 
saw of the springs, he succeeded in understanding their plan. 
A few days afterwards, he constructed one of wood, of which 
the mechanism was very exact. Soon after, giving himself up 
to all the warmth of his imagination, he made two little angels, 
who moved their wings, several priests, &c., for a baby-house 
chapel. 
Whilst he was still young, being at Lyons, and hearing that 
a meeting was to be held for the discussion of a plan for furnish- 
ing the whole town with water, he set himself to work; but 
when hg had finished his labours, timidity prevented him from 
offering the result tothe meeting. Coming back to Paris after 
some months’ absence, he was delighted to find that the plan of 
what is there called the Samaritaine, was the same as his own. 
This convinced him of his powers, and inspired him with courage, 


a faculty in which he was naturally very deficient. He gave him- 





VAUCANSON’S AUTOMATA. 49 


self up entirely to the study of this subject ; and after three years, 
constructed a little figure of wood, which played the flute with 
astonishing precision. 

This excited great admiration ; and it is said that his servant, 
upon first beholding it, fell on his knees, believing his master to 
be inspired, 

Some time after, he exhibited a tambourine-player; two geese 
which dabbled on the ground, looked for corn, and, picking it 
out of a trough, swallowed it ; and, by an internal arrangement 
of wheels, the corn was triturated till it was entirely decomposed. 
Vaucanson also discovered a means of imitating the animal di- 
gestion in a remarkable manner. 

In 1740, the King of Prussia, who endeavoured to attach re- 
markable men to his court, made offers to Vaucanson, who how- 
ever preferred remaining in his own country. Afterwards, at- 
tached to Cardinal Fleury, the inspection of the silk manufac- 
tures was intrusted to him. In this situation, which he had not 
sought, and which he owed to the superiority of his talents 
alone, he brought to perfection an improved method of preparing 
silk. In a journey made by him to Lyons, some ignorant work- 
men followed him, threatening to kill him, for diminishing the 
value of the labour of their hands, by the introduction of ma- 
chinery. 

Moved by a feeling of revenge, Vaucanson constructed, in a 
very short time, a machine, with which an ass executed a piece 
of flowered stuff. 

He made an asp, which imitated all the movements, as well 
as the hissing of the animal, and which was designed for the 
representation of Marmontel’s Cleopatra. -He also undertook a 
mechanism to imitate the circulation of the blood, in which Louis 
XV. took much interest ; but he abandoned the work, on ac- 
count of its extreme slowness of progress. Voltaire, sharing 
in the feelings of admiration demonstrated on all sides for this 


really remarkable man, has justly compared him to Prometheus, 
5 


50 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


who snatched fire from Heaven to animate the work of his 
hands. 

The seventeenth century, notwithstanding its military disposi- 
tion, had yet time to harbour some vast ideas. Industry, wisely 
protected, acquired power, and added greatly to the revenue of 
the country. Versailles, heretofore scorched by the heat of 
the sun, now received the necessary water, by means of the Marly 
machine. Rennequin Sualem appeared, and Versailles assumed 
a new aspect of prosperity and well-being. Honour to the car- 
penter of Liege! 








CHAPTER VIII. 


RIQUET’S CANAL. 


WO years before,.a project not less extraordi- 
nary in its conception, nor less useful, was put 
in execution: namely, the Languédoc canal, in- 
vented by Pierre Paul Riquet de Bonrepos. 
The junction of the Mediterranean with the 
ocean, had been proposed under Francis I., but 
abandoned. Under Charles IX. it was again proposed; but 
civil war diverted the public attention fromit. Henry IV., after 
having pacified France, occupied himself in ameliorating the pre- 
carious position of the kingdom, and among his plans was that 
of the junction of the two seas; but it met with insurmountable 
difficulties. In 1614, the deputies from Languédoc to the Etats 
Generauz, at Paris, applied to Louis XIII. for the execution of 
this work; but neither this, a proposition of Oribat in 1617, nor 
one of Cardinal Richelieu’s in 1632, met with any success. 
Nevertheless, according to the account given by the descend- 
ants of Riquet, the emulation of those who were anxious for it 
did not decrease, and plan succeeded plan. In 1633, Tichot, 
the royal engineer, and Bavau, master of the royal works in 
Languédoc, presented Cardinal Richelieu with a memorial for 
the construction of a canal from the Garonne to the Aude, near 
Barbonne, and from the Aude to the Mediterranean, rendering 
navigable the river Aude, and the ponds of Byrine, of Figean, 
and of La Nouvelle. In 1636, they went farther still; the 
Council of State made an agreement with Jean le Maire for the 
construction of this canal, who, however, was unable to accom- 
plish it. In 1650, another engineer proposed to carry the 
waters of the Ariege to Saint Gabelle, at a distance of seven 


leagues from Toulouse, and to conduct them into a canal not 
(51) 





52 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. : 


navigable, as far as under Pech-Darid, near the Faubourg Saint 
Michel de Toulouse; to dig a navigable canal afterwards, from 
the last-mentioned place as far as Naurose, passing by Castanet, 
Donneville, and Gemét; and to continue this canal to Trebes, 
where it should join the Aude, which was to be rendered navi~ 
gable as far as the sea of Nouvelle. 

The nature of the soil, the apparent scarcity of water, and, 
above all, the difficulty of conducting it to the Pierres de Vau- 
rouse, elevated more than a hundred fathoms above the level of 
both seas, had caused these different projects to be considered 
impossible. 

This gigantic project was received with admiration by Col- 
bert, (whose vast intellect was always directed towards the im- 
provement of the country,) and submitted to Louis XIV. by 
the Intendant General of the finances. This king, who took 
pleasure in imparting his puissant protection to‘all boldly con- 
ceived ideas, published an edict in 1663, on the 8th of January, 
commanding that the plan should be examined by the Commis- 
saries, and by others chosen by the state. N evertheless, a year 
elapsed before any thing was done ; but at last, the meeting was 
fixed for the 6th of October, 1664. 

From 1664 to 1666, the society were occupied in considering 
all the chances of success, and in the course of the last-mentioned 
year, the canal was begun. Riquet was now called upon to put 
into execution a project which preceding ages had looked upon 
as an imaginary one ; but this laborious, indefatigable man, gave 
himself up to the glorious task which he had imposed upon him- 
self. The eyes of all France were upon him, for many doubted 
the feasibility of the plan. Surrounded by jealous enemies, he 
marched proudly on, forgetting, as soon as he heard them, the 
many calumnies uttered against him. As the canal progressed, 
Riquet redoubled his efforts; but unfortunately, a few months 
before navigation was practicable in it, he fell sick and died, 
without enjoying the satisfaction of seeing his work completed. 


RIQUET’S CANAL. 53 


His son, Mathias Riquet de Monrepos, finished it, and six 
months afterwards the canal was in a state of navigation. 

The publisher of the Mercury of 1681, gave the following 
_details concerning Riquet : 

The canal uniting the two seas is completed. This is the 
more extraordinary, as it has always been looked upon as an 
impossibility ; and although in preceding ages the want of it was 
recognised, no man ventured to undertake it. The late M. 
Riquet of Beziers, a man of fine intellect and great powers of 
penetration, resolved to spare ne pains nor expense, in the ac- 
complishment of this great work. Taught by his extensive 
knowledge in this branch of science, a knowledge acquired in the 
exercise of various important functions, that the project was a 
féasible one, he proposed the plan to Colbert ; and the canal was 
begun in 1666, upon his answering for its success. To him 
alone, therefore, is all the honour due. When very near its 
completion, and confident in thé anticipated triumph of the first 
trial of the canal, death snatched him from the delight of listen- 
ing to his own praises. M. de Cassan says in his epitaph: 


Here lies the man who overcame the difficulties of this bold design, 
Who united the waters of the two seas, 
Opened the bosom of the earth, 

Levelled mountains, 

Caused the waves to obey the commands of the king, 
And who moreover 
Never failed in truth, 

As did Moses. 

Nevertheless, their fates were somewhat similar : 
One died in sight of the promised land; 

The other, just before the completion 
Of his canal. , 


Riquet made his own name celebrated. by this undertaking. 
France has inscribed it on one of the brightest pages of her his- 
tory. An idea of the importance of this canal may be gained | 
from the following opinion expressed by Dupont de Nemours, a 
member of the council, in the year 5. 


5* 


54 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS 


The southern canal carries on a commerce of 50,000,060 a 
year: the merchants have an annual benefit of 5,000,000. 

Land proprietors who make use of this canal for trading pur- 
poses, and who formerly had no means of transportation, or,. 
at best, an inconvenient one, receive an augmentation of 
20,000,000 in revenue, agricultural expenses included. By 
means of taxes, twentieths, &c. &c., the government gains pos- 
session of at least 5,000,000 of this ei and of 500,000,000 © 
in a century. 

The year 1783 was a memorable epoch. The treaty which, 
by establishing peace between the two worlds, allowed a free 
navigation of the ocean in all directions, bears that date. 




















Benjamin Franklin, 


CHAPTER IX. 


THE LIGHTNING-ROD. 


inne eX e- pays S early as 1758, the New World was 
aa of wf A eee in possession of a useful invention of 
= y Dr. Franklin’s ; this was the lightning- 

> , 4) rod. : 
or ‘ The lightning-rod consisted of a rod 
uN A\ P of. iron terminating in a platina point, 
YE) et ~A\ and placed on the highest part of a 
FAL SF building. Iron or brass wire, attached 
to the foot of it, descends the wall and buries itself in the-earth. 
These rods are sometimes seen bent with the effects of the light- 
ning, without the adjacent building being in any degree injured. 

The first lightning-rod used in France, gave rise to a curious 
law-suit, in which a young lawyer appeared, who afterwards rose 
to great eminence. 

M. de Vissery de Boisvalé, a great admirer of Franklin’s dis- 
vovery, placed one on-his own roof at Saint Omer. The inhabit- 
ants of the village, beholding in this a machine for attracting 
lightning and causing their houses to be consumed by fire, ap- 


plied to the magistrates to have it removed; and they, sharing 
(55) 






06 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


in the panic, ordered M. Vissery to take down the offensive 
lightning-rod. 

At first this gentleman refused to obey until the court should 
have pronounced such a decree ; but he was soon obliged to com- 
ply, for the neighbours, fully persuaded that their lives were in 
danger as long as it stood there, threatened to demolish it. 
Still, M. de Vissery did not consider himself vanquished: he in- 
trusted his cause to M. d’Arras, a young lawyer, engaging him 
to plead in his defence and that of the lightning-rod. The de- 
fence was made with so much talent, and with a skill so remarka- 
ble, that the fame of the young lawyer soon spread far and wide, 
and M. de Vissery’s triumph was complete.. 

The court reversed the decree of the magistrates, and the 
I'ghtning-rod maintained its place. 








Joseph Mongolfier. 


CHAPTER X. 


BALLOONS. 


N the fifth of June, 1788, the town of An- 
nonay was in a state of extraordinary 
excitement. A man named Mongolfier 
had promised to exhibit a balloon ascen- 
sion. At the appointed hour, a globe 
\\ constructed of linen and paper soared 
PIA ee into the air, and in ten minutes was at a 
height of two thousand metres, and at a horizontal distance of 
more than half a league, with an initial force of two hundred 
. (67) 






58 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS, 


and fifty kilogrammes. The globe or e@rostat was large enough 
to contain twelve hundred cubic measures of rarefied air. 

When this was ascertained at Paris, it excited admiration 
mingled with surprise. ‘The members of the Academy of 
Sciences resolved to repeat the experiment at their own ex- 
pense and on a larger scale. 

Meanwhile, subscriptions were taken up on all sides for the 
construction of another balloon of vast dimensions. Charles, a 
professor of experimental physies, and Robert, a»mechanician, 
were charged with the execution of this vast design. After a 
close examination of all Mongolfier’s details, Mr. Charles sub- 
stituted silk, covered with gum, for linen and paper. The gas 
employed by Mongolfier was produced by burning straw and 
wool under the balloon: this appeared to him so dangerous, 
that in its place he made use of hydrogen gas. 

On the 27th of August, of the same year, less than three 
months after the Annonay experiment, an immense crowd as- 
sembled in the Champ de Mars, and waited impatiently for the 
ascension of Charles’ and Roberts’ balloon. The air resounded 
with repeated acclamations. The balloon, first balancing itself 
at the height of five or six feet from the ground, soared aloft, 
and in two minutes gained a height of one thousand metres, and, 
ascending rapidly to a prodigious height, alighted, in its down- 
ward course, at Gonnesse, a village five leagues distant from its 
starting-point. 

On the 24th of November, a new e@rostat ascended in the 
Park of, La Muette. Pilatre du Rosier, and the Marquis of 
Garlande, went, also, in a small bark attached to the globe, 
which bore Mongolfier’s name. Hitherto, no human being had 
ventured upon this perilous voyage, although many poor animals 
had been forced to undergo its terrors. 

On the Ist of December following, Charles and Robert re- 
newed their bold attempt, and ascended from the garden of the 
Tuileries, travelling over a space of seven leagues in a few 


minutes. Upon beholding this spectacle, the crowd was seized 
i . 


BALLOONS. - 59 


with an emotion of admiration and fear. According to a his- 
torian, men, women, and children fell on their knees and raised 
their hands to heaven in motionless astonishment, until the pro- 
longed success of the ascension drew from them the most en- 
thusiastic acclamations. 7 5 

These ascensions were perilous, and required great caution. 
Charles’ method was considered superior to that of Mongolfier. 
Nevertheless, the balloon of the latter had numerous partisans, 
at the head of whom was Pilatre, who, a short time afterwards, 
venturing to cross, with a Mongolfier, from Dover to Calais, 
fell a victim to his own temerity ; for the covering of the bal- 
loon took fire, and the unfortunate man, half-burnt, was pre- 
cipitated to the ground, on the road to Calais, near Botilogne, 
and killed. 

This melancholy circumstance ere a decided preference to 
the other balloon. 

‘* Of what use are balloons?’ asked some one of Dr. Franklin. 

*‘ Of what use is a new-born child?” retorted the inventor of 
the lightning-rod. 





CHAPTER XI. 
PARMENTIER. 


_ N the year 1783, the alimentary arts received im- 
22 portant additions. Potatoes had hitherto been 
: ~ considered dangerous as an article of food, and, 
according to the popular belief, would produce 
leprosy, and other dreadful diseases. Besides, 
they exhausted a good soil, and could not be produced in a poor 
one. Whilst the northern nations cultivated them, France re- 
jected their use as pernicious. 

Parmentier resolved to combat this prejudice in spite of the 
obstacles which he knew would oppose him. He applied to 
- Louis XVI. for permission to plant potatoes on’a piece of sterile 
ground, of about fifty acres, at Sablons. It was believed to be 
difficult to cultivate them; Parmentier wished to prove the con- 
trary. His potatoes succeeded admirably. He had confided 
them to this arid soil, in the hope of proving, beyond a doubt, 
that he was in the night, and he awaited the time of flowering 
with great impatience. 

Surprised at his own success, Parmentier culled the first flower, 
and hastened to Versailles, where he presented it to the monarch. 
Louis XVI. accepted the offering with a gracious smile, and placed 
it in his button-hole, regardless of the sneers of his courtiers. 

Parmentier’s efforts were crowned with success from that time, 
and the potato took the name of parmentiere. 

“The potato,” says Sir Joseph Banks, “which is now in 
common use, was brought to England by the colonists, sent by 
Sir Walter Raleigh, with Queen Elizabeth’s permission, to dis- 
cover and cultivate, in America, new countries not in the posses- © 
sion of Christians. It is probable that those vessels of Sir Wal- 

(60) 





~~ 


THE POTATO. 61 


ter’s, which set sail in 1584, brought the potato to England on 
their return in 1586.” 

Once introduced into France, it was cultivated in gardens as 
a curiosity; but prejudice was, for a long time, stronger than 
reason. At the present day, the potato, at first called the par- 
mentiere in France, is in constant use among the poor as well as 
the rich. 


To Parmentier is also owing the propagation of maize and of 
chestnuts in France. 





CHAPTER XII. 


LAMPS. 


*% 


ee, HANCE,” says Gaguet, “first taught 

-_@>, men that certain substances, being plunged 
EJ¥_ into oif, would burn slowly, and emit 
an light. Such was the origin of the lamp.” 
5S. )s The ancient lamps were far from satis- 
factory ; furnishing only a dim light, and 





? offending the senses and injuring furni- 
ture by the constant emission of clouds of thick smoke. Until 
the end of the last century, the wax candle was the only means 
of lighting a room without the inconvenience of smoke. 

M. Charles Dupin explains, in the following manner, the de- 
fects of the ancient lamps. 

In the composition of oil, hydrogen and carbon predominate. 
When it burns, hydrogen gas produces a flame, by absorbing 
a3ths of its weight of atmospheric oxygen. The carbon is part- 
ly consumed, but not so rapidly as the oxygen, when the con- 
bustion is not very intense. In evaporating to rise with the 
heated air, it soon falls again, and is deposited as black smoke 
upon every thing around. 

Lamps were yet in their infancy, when Argand de Genéve 
discovered, in 1785, a new method, of a nature to satisfy the 
wants of all classes, but especially those of mechanics, whose 
occupations require a steady and continued light. M. Charles 
Dupin gives the following description. 

Argand entertained the idea of using cylindrical wicks, to the 
top of which the oil should ascend by means of a tube, or by the 
mere capillary attraction of the wick itself. The atmospheric air 
passing continually up the wick in two currents, one external, 


the other internal, these currents were rendered more rapid, by 
(62) 


ARGAND. 63 


a cylindrical chimney of glass concentrically surrounding the 
wick. 

This problem solved, there remained but to make the applica- 
tion of it. Whilst Argand was just at the termination of his la- 
bours, Quinquet, one of his workmen, left his service, and imme- 
diately after brought out the improvement as his own. The 
public accepted it as such, and gave his name undeservedly to 
Argand’s production. | 

Before concluding this part of the subject, we will say a few 
words on Chaillot’s steam engine, and that of Gros Caillou. 
From 1762 to 1781, various projects had been formed for fur- 
nishing Paris with a supply of water, which was daily dimin- 
ishing. Fountains were seen springing out of the ground on all 
sides, but this resource soon failed. The Perrier brothers had 
now for some time contemplated the adaptation of steam engines 
to this purpose. Their plans meeting with public approbation, 
they erected a large building on the Billy wharf, where, on the 
Sth of August, 1781, in the presence of the Lieutenant of the 
Police, trial was made of the first steam engine, with the utmost 
success; and in the month of July, 1782, the’water obtained by 
this engine was applied to public uses. 

Chaillot’s engine only supplied the southern part of Paris 
with water; the Perriers established another on the left bank of 
the Seine. 

From the short and incomplete sketch of different trades, given 
by us from the fifteenth century to the year 1789, it may be 
seen that mechanics and tradesmen in general took an active 
part in the progress of mind which distinguished that period. 
The proof of this is in the improvement made in every depart- 
ment of labour, and in repeated and valuable inventions ; results 
victoriously attesting the intelligence which produced them, and 
forming an entire and peremptory refutation to the silly opinion 
of pride, ignorance, and thoughtlessness ; namely, that the sole 
merit of the mechanic arts consists in an acquired sleight of hand. 

The interesting details upon which we are now about to en- 


64 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


ter, concerning the still greater advances made in these arts from 
1789 up to the present day, will throw a still clearer light. upon 
this truth. Revolutions have this advantage; that, if they ar- 
rest the march of industry for a time, they give it in the end a 
vigorous impulse, driving it forward with giant strides. If they 
were not so disorganizing in their nature, we would call them 
an essential condition of the. social state. For, take any man 
you meet; let him lead a calm and uniform life ; restrain him 
within certain limits; allow him no freedom of thought; and 
what will be the result? This man, losing all activity of mind, 
will fall into a state of apathy. On the other hand, allow a 
man to follow the dictates of his own intelligence, and behold 
the difference! The former, subdued and restrained, is a slave ; 
the latter, with head erect, feels himself a freeman; and it is 
freedom alone which engenders improvement,—it is freedom 
alone which has given rise to marvellous inventions;—to every- 
thing, in fact, which does honour to the genius of man. » 





CHAPTER XIII. 


CHEMISTRY. 


COMPLETE regeneration of social order 
was the result of the Revolutionin France; 
and the dominion of science shared in the 

s happy effects resulting from a commence- 

ment so bloody and disorganizing. 

Chemistry had begun to discover the 

é secrets of nature ; in fact, many arts prac- 
tised for severed centuries had chemistry for their basis. At 
the beginning of the last century, Stahl had established a vast 
system of some authority in the learned world, although in some 
respects a false one. Other chemists of rare talent, such as 
Priestly, Black, Cavendish, Macquer, Scheele and Rouelle, ap- 
plied themselves with ardour and diligence to the study of this 
subject ; but their isolated efforts, far from tending to unity, only 
propagated a sort of scientific anarchy. 

The bold project of collecting the imposing mass of known 
facts, and uniting them by a powerful tie, was one of great difh- 
culty, and, says M. Gaultier de Claubry, “‘ one which required a 
man of uncommon genius, one who should be indefatigable in 
labour, endowed with a tenacity in arriving at his ends, with a 
quick observation, and a determination to conquer the obstacles 
presented to hinr by the whole learned world ; a man, in fact, to 
be awed by neither trouble, toil, nor expense. Such was La- 
voisier, who struggled alone for ten years against the most 
violent opposition ; nor was it until his enemies were forced to 
submit to the mass of proof collected by him in favour of his 
opinions, that his theory was universally adopted,—a theory 
destined to produce effects so extraordinary.” 

Modern chemistry owes its existence to Lavoisier, who esta- 


blished its basis, and gave itamethodical nomenclature. Formerly, 
g* (65) 





66 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


air and water had been considered elementary bodies; his ex- 
periments proved them otherwise. His analysis of the air, alone, 
had great influence over the revival-of chemistry. If it be true 
that Cavendish discovered the secret of analyzing water before 
him, posterity ascribes to Lavoisier, the honour of having been 
the first to establish the exact proportion of the principles enter- 
ing into the composition of this liquid. 

The career once opened, the vigorous impulse given, science 
hastened to follow the steps of her talented master. ‘ Remem- 
ber,”’ says the author of Letters to Sophia upon Physics, Chem- 
istry, and Natural History, “remember the importance of 
Lavoisier’s science. Every thing under heaven is connected with 
it. Fromit, the painter obtains his colours, the potter his earths, 
the physician his remedies, and the warrior his weapons. Other 
branches of science have a close relation to chemistry, for it 
creates mineralogy, reforms geology ; and, penetrating deep into 
the earth, reveals to curious man, nature’s profoundest secrets. 
Our food, our clothing, our arts,—gold, silver, iron, gun- 
powder,—every thing is the result of science, and science is the 
result of man’s labour.” 

It is to chemistry, such as Lavoisier has made it, that we owe 
the bleaching of hemp and linen; the refining of metals ; lighting 
by gas; sugar from beets; the improved manufacture of steel, 
and uew modes of dyeing, remarkable for beauty and durability. 
Our manufacturing towns increased rapidly in riches, and Mar- 
seilles, the cosmopolite city,—Marseilles, the ancient Phocean 
colony, whose port is the rendezvous of fleets from all nations, 
found new sources of prosperity, in the chemical productions 
with which she began to supply the countries of the Levant, and 
the colonies. i 

Lavoisier, with all his genius, did not escape the horrors of 
the Revolution. Scaffolds were erected in every town, and the 
most illustrious men were the first victims. Rank, fortune, emi- 
nent merit, lofty virtues, were so many claims upon public hatred, 
and public hatred invariably brought in its train accusation and 
death. Lavoisier united all these qualities, and was, besides, a 


~ 


LAVOISIER. 67 


Sermier general, a class towards which the public rage was di- 
rected with remarkable fury. 

Finding that his life was in danger, he took refuge in an asy- 
lum prepared for him by Mr. Lucas, the former door-keeper of - 
the Academy of Sciences. But learning that twenty-eight of his. 
associates were imprisoned in the revolutionary dungeons, his no- 
ble mind was unwilling to prolong the danger to which he was ex- 
posing his gracious protector, and he offered himself to the jailers. 

In prison he abandoned himself with ardour to those labours 
which had already acquired him immortality. He was informed 
that he was to be brought to trial in a few days. At that dis- 
astrous epoch, érial was synonymous with condemnation. Lavoi- 
sier, moved by a love, not of life, but of his glorious profession, 
requested a short delay in order that he might complete a few 
experiments, and leave the inheritance of their results to the 
world. Fouquier Tinville, of execrable memory, made this re- 
ply :—‘‘ The republic has no need of chemists, nor of chemistry : 
the course of justice shall not be interrupted.” 

A few days afterwards justice followed her course, and 
France lost discoveries, according to the natural progress of 
science, still more valuable than those with which this s great man 
had already endowed her. Lavoisier was a man of generosity 
and beneficence. In 1788, the town of Blois was threatened 
by a famine. As soon as he heard it, he placed a sum of 50,000 
franes at the disposal of the municipal authorities of the place, 
without fixing any time of reimbursement. He was also the 
‘Mecenas of youthful talent, and delighted in assembling begin- 
ners in his well-furnished laboratory. It was there that Ber- 
thollet, Fourcroy, Chaptal, Vauquelin, and various others, after- 
wards renowned in science, gained their first knowledge. 

During Lavoisier’s imprisonment, the Lyceum of Arts, of 
which he was a member, sent a deputation to express to him the 
interest taken by them in the preservation of so precious a life; 
and to place upon his head a crown, as an emblem of the re- 
spect entertained for the services rendered by him to his country. 


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CHAPTER XIV. 


PROGRESS OF THE ARTS—WORKS IN IRON. 


Eee N the last part of the eighteenth century, 
| although some of the mechanic arts re- 
mained stationary, others advanced with- 
out interruption. 

Among these, we must mention the 
making of locks, a subject upon which we 
have already spoken, and one which is the 
more important, as it embraces various modes of working in iron, 
and the construction of the greater part of the tools employed 
in other arts. . 

In the last fifty years, the art of working in iron has arrived 
at great perfection, as may be seen in the labours of Destriches, 
Damour, and Gerard. This last, in 1770, presented to the 
Academy of Sciences, a canopy of iron supported by four columns, 
above which arose ornaments surmounted by a glory, all of the 
same metal; a piece of work which met with great admiration. 


In former centuries, workers in iron attained some degree of 
(68) 





WORKS IN IRON. 69 


» skill, as may be observed on the two side-dOors of our ancient 
cathedral of Paris. The ornaments are composed of rolls, in 
cast iron, in the Grecian taste of the Bas Empire, and are at- 
tributed to a celebrated workman named Biscornet. We might, 
also, direct attention to the iron grating which connects the two 
wings of the Palace of Justice, a work certainly not wanting in 
merit, although of a heavy order, and not in the best taste. 

From what we have said on the subject of locks, it appears 
that the Lacedemonians and the Egyptians were well acquainted 
with this branch of industry. 

In-1699, the celebrated Papin, the inventor of the steam en- 
gine, fabricated a lock of so singular a construction, that the 
most skilful locksmiths were puzzled to open it, even though the 
key was given them, and although the inventor locked and un- 
locked this marvellous instrument repeatedly in their presence. 
Since then, a number of ingenious locks have been invented, 
What is called the safety lock dates from 1791; that is to say, 
it was not until then that it was made as cheaply as other locks. 

The inventor of this lock was Benoit Sabatier. The Acade- 
my of Sciences, after having examined the labour of this lock- 

-mechanician, decided that the idea was entirely novel, and the 
lock very superior to any other hitherto constructed or imagined. 
Some years afterwards, in 1799, another locksmith, Henry Kock, 
of Paris, gave to the public several new locks, of his own in- 
vention, entirely different in structure from former ones, and 
which were said to resist all attempts of thieves and house- 
breakers. But although no doubt very good, these locks were 
not all they promised to be; for the. last-mentioned advantage 
has, unfortunately, been found to be easily overcome by means 
of taking impressions with wax. ‘No problem,” says M. de 
Moleon, ‘‘ has so much exercised the mind of man as that of as- 
suring the safety of locks. For this purpose, guns, pistols, bells, 
&c., have been attached to them; but the general remedy, and 
the one most in vogue, consisted in retlecing them as a ietienlt 
and complicated as possible,” . 3 | 


CHAPTER XV. 


BREGUET—CLOCKS, &c. 





smmmg)||H1E science of mechanics applied to clock- 
|| making, reveals new wonders; and it is 
worthy of remark, that natural philosophy 
is a powerful auxiliary of this art, and that, 
by its assistance, we shall soon reach a de- 
gree of perfection in clocks never to be 
surpassed. We are about to speak of a 
clock-maker of the present day, whose renown has spread over 
all Europe. 

Bréguet was born of one.of the numerous Protestant families 
compelled, by the edict of Nantes, to leave France. Neufchatel, 
in Switzerland, was his birth-place; and, among the ideas early 
impressed upon his young mind, that of the ruin of his family, 
and the necessity he was under of providing for himself, were 
predominant: nevertheless, no favourable augury of future emi- 
nence arose from his early indications. At school, he appeared 
hopelessly stupid, and his masters, agreed that he was deficient 
in intellect. His father-in-law, a clock-maker, endeavoured to 
teach him his trade, but the young man received his instructions - 
with great repugnance. But being sent to a clock-maker in 
Versailles, he began to take an interest in the art; and his in- 
telligence, by means of studious perseverance, developed itself. 
When the time of his apprenticeship was expired, and his mas- 
ter was expressing the satisfaction his industry and good zon- 
duct had given him, he was surprised at meeting with the fol- 
lowing answer :— 

‘Master, I have a favour to ask of you. I am sensible that 


I have not employed all my time to the best of my ability, in 
(70) 





j 
BREGUET. 71 


your service, and I wish to be allowed to Work three months 
more, under you, without salary.” 

This request established a friendship between the master and 
the apprentice; who, when he left him finally, found himself, by 
the death of his parents, charged with the support of his elder 
sister. Nevertheless, feeling a strong desire to complete his 
education, he was aware that a knowledge of mathematics was 
indispensable to the perfection of his art. His courage carried 
every thing before it: he laboured without relaxation for him- 
self and his sister; and yet found time to listen to a course of 
lectures, delivered by the Abbé Marie, at the Mazarin college. 
The professor observing the punctual assiduity of the young 
clock-maker, made his acquaintance, and was soon united to him 
by a strong friendship, which che it much to the future ad- 
vancement of the pupil. 

His ideas expanded, his labours acquired more precision. A 
new horizon seemed to open before him. 

When the French Revolution broke out, Bréguet had already 
founded the establishment which afterwards produced so many 
master-pieces of mechanism and clock-making. His reputation 
was increasing under the most honourable and flattering suffrages. 

A watch of his make fell into the hands of the celebrated 
English clock and watch-maker Arnold, who examined it with 
astonishment. “The simplicity of the mechanism, and the perfec- 
tion of the work, filled him with admiration; he could not be- 
lieve that any thing could be so well exeouted out of England ; 
and yielding to the love of his art, he immediately set out for 
France for the purpose of seeking Bréguet’s acquaintance. 
Arrived in Paris, there immediately arose a strong friendship be- 
tween these two men; and Bréguet, to give a proof of his 
esteem and affection for Arnold, desired him to take his son with 
him to England and instruct him in their art. This is a beau- 
tiful example of modesty and of confidence, worthy of the imita- 
tion of many men of talent, so often divided by jealousy and a 
spirit of rivalry. 


72 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Bréguet’s first establishment was destroyed by the revolution- 
ary hurricane, and he himself forced to fly from the country. 
During his absence, the generous assistance of friends enabled 
him to continue the exercise of his profession, together with his 
son. At last, after an absence of two years, he returned to Paris, 
and opened a new establishment, at the head of which he re- 
mained with daily increasing prosperity until 1823, when he 
died. ; 

Bréguet was a member of the Institute, as well as Ferdinand 
Berthoud, his worthy rival. He had been successively ap- 
pointed marine clock-maker, and a member of the Bureau des 
Longitudes. 

For the just appreciation of Bréguet’s labours, we can do no 
better than to borrow the pen of the learned and judicious critic, 
M. Charles Dupin. 

‘“‘ This celebrated clock-maker,”’ says he, “‘ whose discoveries 
do honour to the period whose history we are relating, has 
brought all parts of his art to perfection; nothing can be more 
delicate, nor more ingenious than his detached escapement. He 
invented also an escapement called natural, where no oil is 
required, and in the mechanism of which there is no spring. 
Another still better and finer mechanism is that of the duplex es- 
capement, which also dispenses with the necessity for oil; and 
as the successive impulses are all given in thé same dicessdos 
the balance necessarily makes two vibrations for each impulse. 

*¢ Portable marine watches or chronemeters may without injury 
experience any change of position, except that caused by the 
rolling and pitching of a vessel. Bréguet conceived the bold 
plan of enclosing the whole mechanisin of the escapement and 
the spring in a circular envelope, which performs a complete 
revolution every two minutes. By this means,.the inequalities 
of position are, as it were, equalized in this short space of time. 
The machine undergoes all irregularities of position, and com- 
pensates for some by the others. This compensation takes place 


BREGUET. 73 


either when the chronometer is subjected to a continual motion, 
or held immoveable in an inclined or direct position. 

“ Bréguet has done more; he has discovered a method of pre- 
serving the regularity of his chronometers, even in case of their 
being struck or experiencing a fall to the ground. Such is the 
effect of his parachute. An English observer, General Brisbane, 
possessing one of these chronometers, subjected it to great trials 
by constantly wearing it on horseback; and during several long 
voyages, in sixteen months the greatest variation was of only a 
second and a half, that is to say, the 2% part of a diurnal 
revolution. | 

“ At the time when Bréguet obtained this great result, the Eng- 
lish parliament, with British generosity, offered a reward of two 
hundred and fifty thousand francs to the artist who would make 
a chronometer for ships, the daily variation of which should not 
exceed two seconds. No one had gained this prize when Bré- 
guet exceeded this limit, as above stated.” 

“Tam glad,” adds Dupin, “ to be able to state that Bréguet 
began as a simple workman; and, even when he became emi- 
nent, was always a firm friend to young men of his own trade, 
and was able to assist many of them from the deep interest he 
took in their welfare.” 

His watches were remarkable for their precision, even when 
reduced to the smallest size, according to Lepine’s method. He 
used, instead of fusees, a set of springs whose moderate and con- 
tinual force acts without complication and with less friction. 
“‘ Great talent was required for the invention of the fusee,” says 
a learned geometrician, a good judge of this subject, “ but greater 
for the suppression of it.” 


7 


CHAPTER XVI. 


WORKING IN WOOD. 


HE end of the last century beheld great m- 
provements in the arts of carpentry and joinery, 
those two domiciliary arts, which consist in cut- 
ting, shaping, and joining pieces of wood, in or- 
der to make them serve in the construction of 

= houses and other edifices. Geometry is requi- 
site to excellence in either of these arts. The illustrious Monge 
thought it necessary to describe the art of carpentry, in his 
Treatise of Descriptive Geometry ; and said, that if circumstances 
had made it necessary for him to devote himself to any trade, 
he would have chosen that of a carpenter. 

The annals of industry have preserved the memory of the 
cupola of the Halle aux Farines at Paris, which was consumed — 
by‘ fire, in 1802. 

This cupola was a master-piece of art. Its construction was 
the invention of Philibert Delorme, a celebrated architect under 
Henry II.. His plan had great advantages, especially in lhght- 
ness of construction, and economy of wood ; for it is possible, 
in this manner, to raise a very Jarge roof with small logs. The 
greater number of Parisian historians are silent respecting the name 
of the builder of this cupola; others attribute all the honour to 
Legrand and Molinos, architects. We shall take it upon ourselves 
to rectify these errors, and render justice to whom it is due. In 
fact, the work was so admirable a one, that it is wrong to allow 
the artist’s name to remain in obscurity. The cupola was orna- 
mented by twenty-five rays of panes of glass, producing a fine 
effect. The eye beheld with astonishment this immense vault 
of one hundred and ninety-eight feet high, three hundred and 


seventy-seven in circumference, and one hundred feet from the 
(74) 





ROUBO. 75 


floor of the pavement to its summit. _ It was impossible to con- 
ceive how the dome was sustained, divided thus between wood 
and glass, and apparently less than one foot in thickness.. 

The following is the origin of the construction of this cupola. 
The grain trade had for a long time been confined to the circu- 
lar galleries of this edifice, whilst the central open space re- 
mained unemployed. At the time of the fétes given in honour 
of the birth of the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV., this space was 
covered by an immense awning, presenting by the light of the 
ilumination a beautiful appearance, which made a strong impres- 
sion on the imagination of two young architects, Legrand and 
Molinos, recently returned from Rome. The authorities con- 
ceived the project of substituting for the awning, a permanent 
roof of wood. ‘ But,’ as M. Boileau remarked, from whom 
we borrow these details, “ the roof must not be too heavy for 
the old foundations.”” The public embarrassment was very great ; 
how was it possible to find a builder capable of executing so 
difficult a task? One of those present at the deliberation of the 
architects, expressed his opinion that there was but one person 
in Paris able to realize such a project. This was the builder, 
Roubo, author of a skilful treatise on the subject of building. 
Upen this, the architects went to M. Roubo, and presented their 
request to him. He asked to delay giving an answer until the 
next day, when he made known his determination to undertake 
the construction of the cupola ; but on condition of entire freedom 
to follow his own plans. -This being agreed to, Roubo set to 
work, and renewed the plan employed by Philibert Delorme in 
building the Chateau de la Muette, which consists in substituting 
for large pieces of timber work, deal boards placed horizontally 
in roofs of all dimensions. 

M. Boileau goes on to say, that, 

“ After struggling with difficulties of various natures, and 
assisting with his own hands in the formation of every piece of 
wood in the cupola, aided by Albourg, a carpenter, and the 
worker in iron, Raguin, who executed the iron lantern on the 


76 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


top—after five months of labour so well directed as not to risk one 
human life, the great work was completed on the 31st of January, 
1783. It presented a diameter of thirty-nine and a half metres or 
feet, a difference of only four feet from the diameter of the Pan- 
theon at Rome. When the centres were taken down, Roubo, full 
of confidence in his system, insisted upon standing under a cor- 
nice of the platform, in order to examine the roof closely, and ob- 
serve if it shook when left to its own resources. No one would 
share with him what every body considered a great danger. The 
props were removed amid the acclamations of the people, and 
the intrepid Roubo was assured of the complete success of his 
undertaking. He was borne in triumph on the shoulders of the 
admiring citizens, the crowd pressing on all sides to gain a sight 
of the man to whom they owed a construction so new and so 
useful. ; 

Roubo, on this occasion, as well as on all others, showed him- 
self to be as disinterested as he was skilful, renouncing what he 
might have claimed as originator of so great an enterprise, and 
accepting only the sum agreed upon as a remuneration for direct- 
ing the work. Raguin praising his own lantern one day to him, 
Roubo replied, “ Don’t mention it; if I were only in your line, I 
would have made the whole cupola of iron.”’ An idea realized 
twenty-five years afterwards. | 

Roubo’s success and reputation are a new proof of the influence 
of industry and application. Son of a journeyman-builder, de- 
void of intelligence or education, he had been left to himself at 
an early age. Nevertheless, endowed with a strong desire 
to raise himself above the circumstances in which he was 
placed, and conscious that improvement alone would do this, he 
applied himself diligently to study, although many difficulties 
stood in the way. The little money given him to buy food, was 
for the most part laid out in the purchase of books and models 
for drawing. The harshest privations were unheeded by him, 
if he could but procure books. When he began to work at his 

father’s trade, he was still so poor, that when he sat up during 


ROUBO.. . 77 


the long winter nights for purposes of study, he could not 
afford to pay for a lamp or candle, and was obliged to pick up 
pieces of tallow and fat, thrown out by the neighbours, and 
burn them. 

Such ardour did not remain long unfruitful. He was observed 
by Professor Blondel, a nephew of the celebrated architect of 
that name; and, from that time, he had a guide and a support. 
After giving him gratuitous lessons for five years, and otherwise 
encouraging and assisting him, Blondel had great cause to be 
proud of his pupil. 

The cupola of the Halle aux Farines is no more, but other 
monuments remain to attest his talent, such as the massive stair- 
case of mahogany in the Hotel Marbeuf; the vault over the 
Halle aux Draps ; and above all, his *‘ Art of Building.” 

The vestitiary arts, that is to say, those which relate to the 
fabrication of stuffs for clothing, now claim our attention. We 
must premise with the mention of an improvement in mechanics, 
to which the city of Lyons, so celebrated for her manufactures, 
owes in some degree the regeneration of her industry. 





7 * 





Jacquard. 


CHAPTER XVII. 


MANUFACTURING IMPROVEMENTS—JACQUARD. 










(2. ./@~> REVIOUS to the revolution,” re- 
a=, , marks M. Charles Dupin, “ those 

NIC branches of art which provided the lower 
classes with good and comfortable clothing, 
were in a state of deplorable wretchedness. 
Those alone had advanced which furnished the 
higher classes with articles of luxury. The 
Revolution put a stop to this bad state of things by attacking 
and dispersing the elegant arts without pity. Riches became, 
at that period, a crime; so that the higher classes often con- 
cealed their opulence under an outward garb of poverty. Work- 
men were driven from their employment, upon the ruin of their 


masters; manufacturing towns, such as Lyons, were stripped of 
(78) 


Tae 















JACQUARD. 79 


what had once been their greatest source of riches and pros- 
perity. Costumes experienced an universal change; the court 
dress was replaced by the carmagnole, and the French hat by 
the cap of a freed slave; silk gave way to woollen, and linen 
to cotton; powder was banished from the hair by famine and 
dread. Such were the few good effects of the reign of terror.” 

But this could not last long. To a nation such as France, 
luxury is indispensable; we may say it is a condition of its ex- 
istence. In the early part of the reign of the Directory, the 
saloons of the capital were again brilliant with the splendour of 
dress and furniture, in which a display of riches was carried 
beyond the bounds of good taste and modesty. The courtiers 
of the new race were not distinguished by the exquisite polite- 
ness, nor the knightly grace so universally admired in the times 
of the old French monarchy ; but, incapable of copying the man- 
ners, they attempted a silly imitation of the old costumes. 

Meanwhile, the arts were little by little revived. 

Jacquard, of Lyons, born in the humble ranks of workmen, 
invented the admirable improvement which bears his name, and 
which will always keep him in remembrance. 

His father was a master-workman in silk, at Lyons, where, 
in the year 1752, the son was born. The sight of one of Vau- 
canson’s wonderful machines, revealed to him the nature of his 
own genius. His first endeavours were received with sneers 
and jests; a common fate with men of talent. But obstacles 
only redoubled Jacquard’s industry. Supported by the aid of 
several independent workmen, he succeeded in establishing some 
improvements of his own invention, for winding and weaving 
silk; but here new difficulties, new impediments, and we may 
also say, new dangers, threatened him. ‘A second Galileo,” 
says one of his biographers, “ Jacquard was persecuted by his 
fellow-citizens ; who, instead of encouraging him, loaded him 
with reproaches, and even went so far as to threaten his life. 
They looked upon him as an ambitious’ character, whose object 
was to injure his fellow-workmen, and to ruin labour, and bring 


* 


80 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS, 


poverty upon their heads by his invention; so that the unfortu- 
nate man, terrified and discouraged by the treatment he met 
with, and despairing of being able to overcome their prejudices, 
shut up his admirable mechanism in a garret, and waited till 
more fortunate days should give him an opportunity of meeting 
with justice.” 

The above statement is strictly true. The new invention was 
publicly destroyed, and the life of the inventor three times en- 
dangered. The great advantages attendant upon this important 
discovery were obstinately overlooked; for no one had any re- 
gard to the diminution of hands employed, to economy in work- 
manship, or to the alleviation of the sufferings ef some of the 
labourers, which, in one process, were very severe. A malicious 
jealousy only saw, in his ameliorations, a loss of salary for the 
greatest number, and was eareful to spread this opinion. Nor 
did these prejudices cease until France began to feel the effects 
of competition with other countries, when Jacquard’s method 
was adopted ; and at the present day it is the only one in use at 
Lyons. : 

Jacquard, in his improvement, combined two principles of me- 
chanism, which, employed separately, tend to the same object, 
but without success. Formerly, the threads which were to be 
lifted up together to form the figure of the stuff, were moved by 
cords pulled by a child, to whom the weaver was obliged te 
point them out. The new method remedied this mconvenience 
by a regular mechanical process, aided by a moveable pedal. 

The Jacquard invention, although mm common use at Lyons, 
was not generally known until long after, and at the exhibition 
in 1801, it only obtained a bronze medal and a slight notice; 
nor was full justice done to it until eighteen years later, when, 
surmounting all difficulties, neglects, and criticisms, it gained the 
victory over the old laborious, extravagant, and unhealthy 
methods. The commissioners in 1819 decreed to Jacquard a 
gold medal, and, still futther, the cross of honour. 


JACQUARD. 81 


This process is now used not only for silk, but for all varieties 
of woven stuffs. 

Jacquard was remarkably modest and disinterested ; omitting 
to derive any advantage from the various patents he obtained. 
He was the inventor of a machine for making fishing-nets, but 
which never brought him any profit, owing to his negligence. 
When mention was made to him of ‘those who were rapidly in- 
creasing their fortunes by means sof his inventions, he would 
reply, ne 

**T do not complain ; it is ei for me to have been useful 
to my fellow-citizens, and to have a claim upon their esteem.” 





A fe 
Is 


wit pe ‘ mE é 
r : —SSSS 
SSS ih 


ml 
Tal 
= if hit 





CHAPTER XVIII. 


OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS—PIANOS. 


“4 ARALLEL with the progress of science in other 
“departments, were the improvements made in 
se optical instruments. Before 1789, Europe pro- 
=. cured all her astronomical instruments from 

= England; France having no able artist in that 


line. Faecal a Hanoverian, and a musician in a regiment, 
e 6% 





ERARD. 83 


was made director of an organ in Bath, where, after employing 
his leisure time for ten years in constructing gigantic and powerful 
telescopes, he discovered, not a new star, but the mobility of one 
hitherto ranked with the fixed stars. Such an event taught 
France the necessity for instruments proportioned to the advanced 
state of science. The engineer and musician, Lenoir, distin- 
guished himself by still further improvements in this valuable 
branch. It was he who obtained the first prize at the exhibi- 
tion in 1798, fer portable reflecting circles. 

At the subsequent exhibitions he was equally successful, re- 
ceiving prizes for large astronomical instruments, amongst which 
was a fine Borda circle. | 

Sebastian Erard, in giving France that fine musical instrument, 
the piano, created an important branch of commerce, and obtained 
for his own name an eminent place among those of illustrious 
mechanics. 

Before his fortunate importation, the spinnet and the harpsi- 
chord, with their harsh and discordant sounds, were much in 
vogue. Erard’s pianos altered the nature of musical harmony ; 
and, according to Mv Castil Blaze, the harpsichord was €ensigned 
to the garret, there to remain until needed for fuel. 

Sebastian Erard, born at Strasbourg, in 1750, was originally 
destined to architecture. Fortunately for the lovers of good 
music, reverses in business obliged him to become a mechanic. 
Arrived in Paris, at the age of sixteen he apprenticed himself to 
a harpsichord-maker, in whose service he soon became a skilful 
workman. 

Upon leaving this place, another harpsichord-maker, acquainted 
with the young man’s remarkable talent, made him a proposal to 
execute an instrument of different construction from the common 
harpsichord ; but by a private arrangement, the maste#s name 
was to appear upon it. When it was completed, the amateur 
who purchased it, delighted with its excellence, returned to 
ascertain if the harpsichord-maker was the true originater of the 
improvements, and asked numerous questions concerning the in- 


84 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS, 








“Sie 


Hk 

















Erard ‘anal the Dacbes of Villeroi. 


ternal mechanism. ‘The man, taken by surprise, was at a loss 
how to reply, and was in the end forced to admit that it was the 
work of young Erard. 

Erard’s reputation spread rapidly. The Duchess of Villeroi, 
a patroness of the arts, took the young artist under her protec- 
tion ; and it was at her house that he constructed his first piano. 
This instrument, recently invented in Saxony, by Silberman, was 
then almost unknown in France. The Duchess of Villeroi 
wished to have one, and also that it should be of French make; 
she asked Sebastian Erard if he thought he was able to make 
one. This was a sort of challenge, which the artist, confident 
in his own powers, accepted without hesitation, and the piano 
was sogn completed. It was thus, says a biographer, that a 
great Tady and a young artist introduced this valuable musical 
instrument into France. 

Listened to in Madame de Villeroi’s saloon, where all the 
talent of Paris was accustomed to assemble, it produced a great 


ERARD’S ORGAN. ~ 85 


impression, and a scientific comparison being made between it 
and a German instrument of similar construction, n'a neigh- 
bouring house, the preference was given to the French one. 

Sebastian Erard, together with Jean Baptiste Erard his bro- 
ther, formed an establishment which succeeded admirably from 

*year to year. Their pianos spread not only over France, but 
also into the Netherlands, and some parts of Germany. In the 
year 1799, a commissioner in Hamburg sold more than two hun- 
dred of Erard’s pianos. 

Amongst other improvements by Erard, was that of adapting . 
all pieces of music to voices of moderate power ; and he enter- 
tained the idea of rendering the key of the piano moveable in 
either direction to the extent of half a note, a whole note, or 
a note and a half. This ingenious contrivance was first tried 
upon a piano made for Marie Antoinette. It was also on this 
instrument that he made the first trial of the orgue expressif, 
in which, by the prolonged pressure of a finger, the sound was 
diminished or increased at pleasure like the inflexions of the 
voice. 

“T have,” says Gretry, in-his Essay on Music, “ played five or 
six notes on an Erard organ which had been made susceptible 
of tones; the more I pressed, the more the sound increased ; 
and, in softly raising my finger, it diminished. It is thé philoso- 
pher’s stone of music. The nation ought to build a very large 
organ of this kind, and reward Erard richly, for he is the most 
disinterested man in the world.” 

Gretry wrote these lines in 1812, a time when Erard’s genius - 
was by no means at its height. The beautiful and difficult in- 
vention of the harp with two pedals added a brilliant leaf in his 
laurel crown. 

He not only improved the form of this al onan’ giving it 
more elegance, but also tripled the richness of its sound by means 
of pedals and levers, skilfully combined to correspond to the 
same sounds of the octave, on different strings. 

_ What is the reason that the harp, with its harmonious mera 

8 


86 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


tions, its melancholy charm, its angelic sweetness, is so much 
less studied than the piano? M. Charles Dupin gives the fol- 
lowing solution of this problem :— 

** The harp isa very costly instrument, and one which is easily 
deranged in the midst of playing, by the continual breaking of 
the strings ; and has besides the disadvantage of giving a lady @& 
somewhat theatrical position, bringing into relief the beauties 
of form and motion, displaying arms, hands, feet, and figure, even 
where, as occasionally happens, it would be better to throw a 
veil over some of these. ‘The fingering is also much more diff- 
cult than that of the piano, so that every year the harp is less 
and less studied, and gradually disappears from instrumental 
concerts. It is besides very inferior to the piano as an accompani- 
ment to the voice, being much more penetrating and vibrating.” 

However this may be, Erard’s fame remains untarnished. 
The success of his harp with two pedals, was particularly great 
in London, where he directed a flourishing establishment, in 
spite of his being a Frenchman. Finally, his last and greatest 
work, his improved grand piano, completed his scientific reputa- 
tion. He had obtained the gold medal at every exhibition of the 
products of French industry, and was the first musical instru- 
ment maker who obtained the cross of the Legion of Honour. 

After his death, which took place in the month of August, of 
the year 1831, his workmen paid a solemn and touching tribute 
to his memory. A bust of Sebastian Erard had been taken by 
means of a subscription got up among them, The day devoted 
to the inauguration of this monument of respect was one which 
deeply affected them. 

Erard possessed the rare quality of making himself beloved by 
all those employed in his service; sharing their labours and re- 
joicing in their improvement. He always spoke to them in 
_tones of encouragement, and assisted them when in difficulties; 
not only by advice, but with his purse, which was always open 
to them. He gave pensions to aged mechanics, or such as were. 
in extreme poverty ; and carried his generosity to sucha degree, 


~ 


AUTOMATA. 87 


that he would aid those of his own trade in founding establish- 
ments on as large a scale as his own. eed 

Apprentices are considered an ungrateful class; but good 
masters make good workmen; and if such a man as Erard were 
at the head of every manufactory, it would not be necessary to 
provide so many ameliorations in the moral training of the work- 
ing classes. | : 

We have spoken of Vaucanson’s wonders. The end of the 
eighteenth century gave rise to new ones of the same nature, 
but more surprising still. Although mere works of curiosity, 
these have excited great admiration in all ages. Plato relates 
that Architas, of Tarentum, made a wooden pigeon which could 
fly ; a circumstance easy of belief to any one who has seen Vau- 
canson’s automata. ; 





Yi,ibd be 
Serre 


LL 


i 

















Mical destroying his own Works. 


CHAPTER XIX. 


AUTOMATA. 


Ni PRON OA MONG these prodigies of mechanism, 


a ek \ there are, undoubtedly, some which ex- 
2 va Yor, £ cite admiration by the skilfulness of the 
Nei 
= ay 


‘\ 


ws i deception only. We will mention one 

3 \G i of them: the famous chess-player which 

x“ made so much noise in 1783. 

‘3 a) 5 This was the work of Kempelen, coun- 
cro hE——"BFZF sellor of the finances to the Emperor of 
Austria. The automaton, dressed as a Turk, sat behind a sort 
of chest, three feet and a half high, which was on castors, and 
was rolled backwards and forwards in the presence of the spec- 
tators, and opened to exhibit the cylinder, and the wheels by 
which the arm of the figure was moved. This arm raised itself 
slowly, stretched itself out until it reached the piece proper to 
be played, opened its fingers, took it up, and transported it to 
the square on which it should be placed, and then slowly return- 
ing, rested upon a cushion. At every move made by the adver- 
sary, the automaton shook its head, its eyes glancing over the 


board, calling out “ Echec” when necessary. If its adversary 
(88) 






i 77 = 
CYS 
WS4 
= — 
@ 
\ 
Ao 4-905 


MICAL, : 89 


made a false move, it would put the piece back into its place, 
with a shake of the head. It would also reply to any questions 
asked it, by means of a tablet, containing all the letters of the 
alphabet, placed before it, and upon which it would point out in 
succession those which formed its reply. 7 

The greater the deception, the greater the number of dupes ; 
for the human mind has a natural inclination for the marvellous. 
A machine may be so perfected by man as to have some quali- 
ties analogous to those of the body, but can never be endowed 
with a particle of intelligence. Prometheus alone snatched fire 
from heaven. 

Albert Le Grand, a Dominican, and bishop at Ratisbon, con- 
structed a head of brass which pronounced articulate sounds. 
Kempelen, mentioned previously, exhibited to the Academy of 
‘Sciences, an automaton which distinctly articulated several 
phrases: ‘“‘ Me ama;’’ “ Aimez moi, Madame;” “ Venez avec 
moi a Paris,’”*&c. Kratzenstein put together another, imitating 
the vowels. 

Afterwards came the Abbé Mical, who invented several au- 
tomata, the sources of much wonder. He made a group of 
figures playing upon different musical instruments, and presented 
to the Academy of Sciences, two colossal brazen heads, which 
pronounced entire sentences in a distinct manner, in a strong and_ 
sonorous voice, very like that of man. 

France had reason to be proud of Mical’s ingenuity ; but the 
government, in.1784, refusing to purchase his automata, the un- 
happy man, overcome with debts, and reduced to great poverty, 
fell into a fit of despair and anger, and destroyed them with his 
own hands. 

These experiments, says a writer, have resolved a great prob- 
lem; that of whether the human voice could leave the place 
assigned it by nature. A wheel and a lever are as far removed 
from a speaking head, as the stroke of a pen from a fine paint- 
ing. Vaucanson confined his efforts to animals, imitating their 


motions and their digestion. Mical, Prometheus-like, raised his 
& * 


90 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


aspiring hand to man, selecting for imitation his most brilliant 
and most complicated power. He perceived that the vocal organ 
in the throat was a wind instrument, having its keys in the 
mouth; that by blowing inwards, as in a flute, disconnected 
sounds only could be produced; but to articulate words, it is 
necessary to blow outwards. The air, in passing from our lungs, 
‘becomes sound in the throat, and this sound is divided into sylla- 
bles by the action of the lips and tongue, aided by the teeth and 
palate. A continued sound would be a prolonged vowel; but, 
divided at different intervals by the tongue and lips, it gains a 
consonant at every division, and becomes modified into an infinity 
of articulations expressing all our various ideas. Upon this’ 
principle, Mical applied two keys to his heads; one a cylinder, 
through which only a limited number of phrases was obtained, 
but upon which the intervals between words and their prosody 
were correctly marked. The other key contained all the syllables 
of the French language, reduced by an ingenious method of the 
author’s to a very small number. By means of a little skill and 
practice, the articulation might be made with the fingers as well 
as the tongue ; and the rapidity, the repose, and the expression 
peculiar to the human voice when not under the influence of 
passion, given to these heads of brass. 

If we may put faith in Montucla, author of the History of 
Mathematics, Mical’s speaking heads were sold, but we hear 
nothing of the buyers. It can hardly be possible that a body 
of men intrusted with the interests of the state could have been 
so very negligent of the progress of science, as to omit to inquire 
into the fate of these curious automata. 





CHAPTER XX. 


THE TELEGRAPH. 


\¢_ patching news to a distance with prompt- — 
ness. In the time of Polybius, signals 
were made with torches, and later still, 

ae by means of planks and boards: the 
want of ineesbtvings glasses creating a necessity for very short 
distances between these beacons, which, after all, were only 
visible by night. Among the moderns, the first telegraphic 
essays known were those of Kircher, Kesler, Amonton, Gau- 
thery, Guyot, and Paulian. But their methods, although more 
or less ingenious, left much to be desired._ 

At last, Claude Chappe invented the telegraph. 

This consisted of a beam which turned on a pivot in the top 
of an upright post, having a moveable arm at each of its ex- 
tremities, and each different position in which the beam and its 
two arms could be placed at angles of forty-five degrees, afforded 
_a separate signal, which might represent a letter of the alphabet, 
or have any other signification that should be agreed upon. 

The first official trial of the telegraph was made on the 12th 
of July, 1793. Its success was complete; a despatch was 
transmitted ‘to the distance of forty-eight leagues in thirteen 
minutes and forty seconds. 

The mechanism of the telegraph is such, that it acts easily 
and rapidly ; and, assisted by good telescopes and second pen- 
dulums, observations are made and messages communicated from 
one extremity of*France to another, by means of secret signals 
unknown to chance observers. 





(91) 


92 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


The invention of the telegraph is particularly useful to go- 
vernment, which is thus advised of all that may be of impor- 
tance. Such instruments are placed on elevated situations, at 
regular distances from each other, and supplied with telescopes. 
News is received at Paris from Calais in three minutes, by means 
of thirty-three telegraphs ; from Lille in two minutes, by twenty- 
two telegraphs; from Strasbourg in six minutes and a half, by 
forty-four telegraphs; from Toulon in twenty minutes, by 
one hundred telegraphs; from Brest in eight minutes, by fifty- 
four telegraphs ; from Bayonne in thirty minutes, through Tours 
and Bordeaux. Many individuals once obscure, have become 
very rich by skilfully taking advantage of the announcements of 
the telegraph. _ Gratitude should induce them to erect a monu- 
ment to the memory of Claude Chappe. 





CHAPTER XXII. 


GALVANIC BATTERY—VOLTAIC PILE—MAGIC 
LANTERN—PANORAMA,. 


+ i HANCE gave rise, about the year 1789, 
367° to one of the most important of modern 
| Satan gh ie , 


oa) | 


» Galvani, a natural philosopher of Bou- 


logne, was dissecting a frog, whilst one 





of his pupils was making experiments in 
electricity in the same room, and drew sparks from the con- « 
ductor. He remarked, that suddenly the muscles of the frog, 
being exposed, gave signs of motion whenever the nerves came in 
contact with the scalpel, which acted as a metallic conductor. 
Galvani varied his experiments and dissected another frog, ex- 
posing the nerves which go down the spine into the legs, and 
wrapping them in a leaf of pewter, applied to this one of the two 
extremities of a compass or a pair of scissors, and touched with 
the other the surface of the leg or thigh of the frog. Every 
time this was repeated, it produced convulsive movements in the 
muscles, which were motionless when the process was repeated 
without communication with the pewter leaf. 

Galvani, a man of great intelligence, beheld the existence of 
a new principle in this phenomenon, and originated the fertile 
branch of physics known by the name of Galvanism. 
~The convulsions observed by him in frogs were not perma- 
nent, and could only be produced by contact with an instrument. 
formed of two metals. After numerous experiments, he disco- 
vered that a metallic communication must be established between 
the nerves and the muscles. — 

The galvanic fluid, Nature’s most powerful agent in all’her ope- 


rations on the surface of the globe, was thus made known to man. 
(93) 


94 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Shortly afterwards, Volta, another philosopher, repeated Gal- 
vani’s experiments, and discovered that electricity was developed 
by the mere contact of metals; and conceived the fortunate 
idea of constructing what has since, from the name of the in- 
ventor, been called the Voltaic pile, which consists of alternate 
layers of zinc and copper, separated by pieces of moistened cloth 
(which is an excellent conductor). ©The quantity of electric 
fluid produced by the first contact of zinc, copper, and cloth, 
communicates itself to the second, and so on, increasing with 
great energy as it accumulates to the end of the pile. The 
chemical effects of this instrument are very remarkable: it de- 
composes water, oxides, acids, and all salts. 

In the same year (1798), the philosopher Robertson exhibited 
a surprising and interesting novelty at Paris: an optical illusion, 
by aid of which, the natural magician, without sorcery, invoked 
spectres and frightful phantoms. This was the magic lantern. 

We borrow the following description from the Dictionary of 
Industry :— | 

“You are ushered into a dark room hung with black, or 
where a sepulchral lamp gives a faint light. Before long this 
is extinguished, and the. exhibition begins with a noise of rain 
mingled with hail, and on an illuminated wall at the other end, 
you perceive representations of Rousseau, Mirabeau, Voltaire, 
and other well-known personages. Fearful scenes are also in- 
troduced, such as a skeleton which raises itself from the ground 
and walks along; a tomb which opens, and is struck by light- 
ning; a bloody nun with a lantern in her hand, who comes 
down a long gallery, &c., &c. This exhibition, so terrifying to 
the ignorant, was a source of curiosity and interest to the learn- 
ed, who recognised in it the laws of catoptrics.” 

The eighteenth chapter of the seventeenth book of Porta’s 
Natural Magic contains an account of the magic lantern. 

At the same period (1799), a new species of painting, im- 
proved by optical illusions, captivated all Paris. It was a vast 
circular representation of objects, where the eye reached to a 


THE PANORAMA. 95, 


horizon, and there being no limit, the illusion was complete. 
This was called the panorama, from two Greek words, signify- 
ing a view of the whole. 

The canvass upon which the panorama is painted, covers the 
walls of a tower, three hundred feet in circumference. In the 
centre of the edifice a platform is erected, surrounded by a 
balustrade, and is destined to receive the public. The roof, in 
the form of a reversed cone, admits the daylight through an an- 
nular opening. A covering is placed over the heads of the 
spectators, casting a shade so that the greater part of the light 
falls on the painting, illuminating skies, trees, figures, and giving 
warmth to the various tints in the north, south, east and west, 
by means of the ingenious arrangement of these points of the 
compass in the interior of the edifice. 

Upon first looking at a panorama, the eye is struck with the 
great number of apparently confused images; but insensibly, 
this impression wears off, each object assumes its proper place, 
and the effect is truly magical: you fancy yourself in the centre 
of a town, or a field of battle; the painting is no longer a piece 
of canvass, the work of art,—it is nature—living, active nature. 

The invention of panoramas is due to Robert Barker, a por- 
trait-painter in Edinburgh, who obtained a patent for it on the 
19th of July, 1787. It was not until five years afterwards that 
he exhibited one in London, representing that city itself. 

This new mode of painting was brought into France -about 
thé year 1799, by the American, Fulton, of whom we shall 
hereafter speak more at large. . 

A landscape-painter, of the name of Prévost, made the best 
and most extensive application of panorama-painting. That of 
Paris was the first exhibited by him, and in seventeen others 
afterwards offered to the public, his talents improved rapidly. 
The best were those of Rome, Naples, Antwerp, London, Jeru- 
salem, and Athens. Whilst employed upon the panorama of 
Constantinople, he was attacked by the illness which caused his 
death, in 1823. 


96 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


The following is Mr. Chateaubriand’s testimony to the merits 
of this able and conscientious artist :— 

““The panoramas of Jerusalem and. Athens have been ex- 
hibited in Paris; the illusion was complete. I recognised streets 
and monuments, and even the little court where I myself lived, 
in the convent of Saint Sauveur. Travellers’ stories will be 
less easily credited than nay now that foreign cities come 
to Paris to prove and disprove.” 

Prévost may be regarded as a faithful imitator of nature; for 
his drawings were taken upon the spot, and painted aftewente 
with a rare excellence. The different aspects of the country, 
the varied tints of the sky, the scrupulous exactness of detail, 
the perfect harmony reigning in all his compositions, endow them 
with uncommon beauty. His sky of Tilsit is not the sky of 
Jerusalem or of Athens. The smoky air of London, the city of 
fogs, is in perfect contrast with the sunny atmosphere of Na- 
ples. In the plain of Wagram, the smoke of artillery and mus- 
ketry is perfectly distinguishable from that of burning villages, 
and clouds in the sky from vapours hanging over the Danube. 
The great painter, David, upon visiting one of Prévost’s first 
panoramas, said to his pupils, “In future, come here to study 
nature.” 





CHAPTER XXII. 


THE BALLOON AND PARACHUTE. 


227 ONGOLFIER’S invention, which had open- 
ed a career through the air, was not a mere 
‘2 Object of curiosity. The inventor’s first idea 
; was to employ balloons for military recon- 
noissance. In the beginning of the Revolu- 
tion, an attempt was made to discover the 
motions of the enemy by this means. During the celebrated 
battle of Fleurus, bulletins attached to small flags were let 
down from balloons, giving the French general notice of the 
position and manceuvres of the enemy’s army. A body of aero- 
nauts was instituted to march in the train of the northern army. 
The illustrious Malesherbes, a sincere friend to arts and vir- 
tue, and a zealous protector of all that tended to augment the 
glory of France, took a deep interest in the efforts of the Mon- 
golfiers. ‘I cannot express to you,” said he to Boissy d’An- 
glas, ‘ how delighted I am that this invention has been made in 
France instead of England, which would, before long, have 
given it to the world. I consider it a greater national honour 
than a naval victory.” 

The invention of the parachute gave a new interest to aerial 
voyages. Several natural philosophers claimed the honour of 
this invention; but the aeronaut, Garnerin, was the first who 
put it in: practice. 

He endeavoured, by means of a circular aperture at the top © 
of the parachute, to correct the vacillations which rendered it 
so dangerous. 

“The parachute,”’ says M. Charles Dupin, ‘is a sort of cir- 
cular covering, the circumference of which is fastened down to 


the basket underneath, by equidistant cords. The centre of it 
i on 





98  JLLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


is immediately under the balloon, and over the aeronaut, who is 
thereby enabled, in case of alarm, to drop from his balloon to 
the ground without sustaining injury. This is effected by means 
of the resistance of the atmosphere. When the parachute is 
detached from the balloon, and abandoned with its load, in the 
air, it must proceed at first, from the continued action of gravity, 
with an accelerated motion until attaining an equilibrium, when 
it will descend with a nearly uniform velocity.” : 

The parachute is not always a preservative against accidents, 
as was proved by the unhappy fate of the English aeronaut, 
Cocking, who left London in a balloon, and at some distance 
from that city, attempted to descend by means of a parachute of | 
his own invention, and perished in his fall. 

Twenty years after the first aerostatic experiments, two men, 
well known for their scientific reputation, Gay-Lussac, and Biot, 
made two memorable balloon ascensions, for the purpose of 
taking observations upon the electrical state of the atmosphere; 
and at the height of seven thousand yards, found the air to be 
similar in composition to that on the surface of the earth. After 
the tragic catastrophe which befell Pilatre du Rosier and his 
companion Romain; after the melancholy fate of Arnold and 
his son, whose aerostat was precipitated into the Thames, a more 
than common courage was required to brave the dangers of the 
upper regions. 


i! 


| 
| 
| 





CHAPTER XXIII. 


INSTITUTIONS FOR EDUCATING THE BLIND. 





N placing in the ranks of illustrious ar- 
tisans the authors of inventions and dis- 
coveries useful to the mechanic arts, we 
have not exceeded the limits of our sub- 
ject, which are so extended that we have 
no need of digression. We are sure, 
however, that our readers will not regret that our popular Pan- 
theon contains an account of the charitable efforts of those who 
have been the sincere friends of the poor and labouring classes, 
—the benefactors of humanity. Honour to the glorious inven- 
tions of genius! honour also to those of the generous heart! 

We speak of the institution for the education of the blind, and 
of the excellent and modest philanthropist who founded it. Va- 
lentine Hauy, brother of the celebrated mineralogist of that 
name, was much interested in the efforts of the Abbé de  Epée 
in favour of the deaf and dumb. 

A new idea struck him; would it not be possible to instruct 
the blind also? Under the influence of this idea, Hauy~ exa- 
mined the biography of the blind, and sought out with diligence 
all facts tending to throw light upon this subject. 

“The blind man,”’ said he, “ gains a knowledge of different 
objects by means of the touch, and can distinguish one piece of 
money from another. Why could he not also distinguish one 
note in music from another, or one letter in the alphabet from 
another, if these were rendered peer Would it not be ad- 
vantageous to offer to the blind man’s fingers a sign in 20) 
equivalent to that presented to the eyes of others?” | 


This theory once admitted, Hauy began immediately to put it 
(99) 


100 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


in practice, procuring raised letters and ciphers, and made his 
first experiment on a young blind man named Lesueur, an orphan, 
who was in the habit of asking alms at a church door, and whom 
he had sometimes questioned and found intelligent. To him he 
explained his project ; invited him to come and live at his house, 
and offered to compensate him for what he would thereby lose 
of public charity. The proposal was accepted, and the young 
blind man followed his new protector home. 

The zeal of this good man was not long without reward. 
Lesueur, at the end of six months, could read and cast up figures 
with his skilful fingers ; and had besides learned a little geography 
and music. Such success excited attention ; the public desired 
to witness so novela sight. Hauy having occasion to read a 
memoir upon the writings of the ancients and moderns, and the 
mode of correspondence by means of ciphers, before an academic 
assembly, took this opportunity for producing his pupil. The 
intelligence of the pupil, and the zeal of the master, were loudly 
applauded. Hauy’s method was admired and encouraged. 
Twelve young blind men were confided to his care, forming a 
growing institution, which increased rapidly under the auspices 
of the Philanthropic Society. This was in 1784. Two years 
afterwards, his number of pupils had doubled itself. The court 
evinced a desire to behold them at their studies. Their master 
took them to Versailles, where, for the space of two weeks, they 
excited great interest. The king took the institution under his 
protection, making a liberal provision, enabling Hauy to receive 
as many as one hundred and twenty pupils, and gave this worthy — 
man the title of secretary-interpreter to the king, and to the 
admiralty of France. : 

The Revolution deprived Hauy of this generous assistance, 
and the whole expenses of the establishment again devolved 
upon him. Nevertheless, by dint of great zeal and great sacri- 
fices, he was able to sustain it, although in a very inferior 
manner. ; 

The Directory restored the protection of government to this 


HAUY. 101 


institution. and the education of the blind received a new and 
ardent impulse, which it has never lost. 

There is no more interesting sight than that of these young 
people, whose sense of touch, brought by education to great 
perfection, compensates, in a great degree, for the loss of sight, 
and enables them to study many of our arts and sciences. Some 
occupy themselves with geographical globes, others read or 
write, decipher music, or perform on some instrument. 

Before closing his honourable career, Hauy had the satisfaction 
of founding similar institutions at Berlin and St. Petersburg. In 
testimony of his gratitude, the Emperor Alexander decorated 
him with the cross of Saint Uladimir, and retained him in Rus- 
sia eleven years; but the desire of revisiting his native soil 
brought him back to France in 1817, where he died at an ad- 
vanced age in 1822. | | 

Whoever has visited Clermont, (Oise) has no doubt made a 
pilgrimage to Liancourt, a small town, agreeably situated on a 
declivity, at the foot of which spreads a beautiful plain called the 
golden valley, from the fertility of its soil, and the richness of 
its verdure. 

Before the Revolution, the Chateau Liancourt was finely 
situated in the midst of this beautiful country, and the gardens 
attached to it were a beautiful example of the combined attrac- 
‘tions of nature and art. Long shady groves, lakes, fountains, 
and water-falls, contributed to the charms of this beautiful place. 
The Duke of La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, having directed his at- 
tention to the study of agriculture when in England, established 
a farm at Liancourt upon the English plan, and stocked it with 
fine Swiss and English cattle. It was through him, that the 
culture of artificial meadows was introduced into France; a 
useful means of feeding cattle in winter. 

9 * 


CHAPTER XXIV. 
ROCHEFOUCAULD. 


¢gOCHEFOUCAULD founded a school of 
; arts and sciences for the instruction of the 
*$] sons of poor soldiers, where he spent muck 





* of his time, applauding and encouraging 
the pupils. This school was, in some sort, 
the cradle of that at Chalons sur Marne: 
a practical school, where various mechanical trades were taught, 
such as carpentry, cabinet-making, and various kinds of work 
in wood and iron, clock-making, &c.; and which, having for the 
basis of all instruction the analytic method, drawing and mathe- 
matics, has furnished France with many able workmen. 

La Rochefoucauld Liancourt also established three important 
manufactories near his chateau. One of these was for making 
_ cards for carding wool, the second was for cotton-spinning, and 
the third for pottery; employing, in all, three hundred workmen. 
In the year 1801, the cards introduced by him into France, ob- 
tained the bronze medal at the exhibition. 

Sent into exile during the reign of terror, La Rochefoucauld 
Liancourt turned his misfortune to the profit of France. At 
his return, he introduced vaccination into his own country, and 
checked ‘the ravages of the small-pox, which was desolating 
towns and villages. He neglected no means of propagating this 
wonderful discovery made by Jenner, to whom succeeding gene- 
rations owe an enormous debt of gratitude. 

At home again, this excellent man endeavoured, by various 
means, to ameliorate the condition of the poor. He taught them 
the principles of modern agriculture, notwithstanding the brutal 
opposition which met him at every step. He was one of the 


principal founders of the Savings Fund, an institution whose 
(102) 


ROCHEFOUCAULD. 103 


benefits are now experienced by all the labouring classes of 
France. The venerable name of Rochefoucauld Liancourt was 
seen at the head of every association for the assistance of the 
lower classes, were it for educating them, lightening their labour, 
raising their wages, or impressing upon them the importance 
of order and economy. At his death in 1827, a number of the 
workmen of Paris, amongst whom were, no doubt, some old 
pupils from Liancourt, Compiégne, or Chalons, insisted upon 
bearing his coffin upon their shoulders. Meeting with a troop 
of soldiers, a dispute arose, and the coffin was precipitated into 
the mud. The tumult which ensued was a prelude to the catas- 
trophes of 1830. 

Notwithstanding this disgraceful scene at the funeral of the 
virtuous Duke of Rochefoucauld Liancourt, nothing can ever 
efface the memory of his public benefits. The introduction of 
vaccination; the creation of a Savings Fund; the establishment 
of the Society for Elementary Instruction, and of the School of 
Arts and Trades (which alone has done so much for the im- 
provement of France, and has been followed by numerous simi- 
lar institutions), are all so many claims upon the eternal grati- 
tude of mechanics and artisans, to whore service his whole life 
was devoted. 

A like spirit actuated Bachelier, a French painter, of san 
rate abilities, but. especially remarkable for the signal services ~ 
rendered to the mechanic arts. The institution which does him 
so much honour, has now been established nearly twenty-four 
years, and, withstanding all the shocks of our political troubles, ° 
still exerts a salutary influence over a great part of the products 
of Parisian labour. If you have ever had occasion to visit the 
populous neighbourhood of the School of Medicine, you have, 
no doubt, observed a crowd of boys hastening onward, each 
bearing a portfolio of drawings, which, as you may also have 
observed, serves as a shield in the frequent street combats. 

Now and then two walk along together, arm in arm, or lean- 
ing on each other’s shoulder; and on the newly-plastered wall 


~ 


104 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


opposite, a merry youngster traces a grotesque profile. By the 
simple dress, the animated face, the little cap placed negligently 
on the side of the head, and the general appearance of good will 
and mischief, you may easily recognise the children of the lower 
classes. | ) | 

These are the sons of mechanics, destined for mechanics theim- 
selves, who go to the Bachelier school to study drawing. 

It was for this class that Bachelfer founded his free drawing- 
school, in 1763, spending upon it 60,000 livres, economized from 
his own private fortune. He hired the old college of Autun, in 
the Rue Saint André des Ares, and in 1766 opened with fifteen 


- hundred pupils. One year afterwards, when its success was 


certain, the king gave him 1,000 louis, and granted him letters 
patent. Princes, courtiers, men of the world, all classes imi- 
tated the example of the monarch; and voluntary subscriptions, 
joined to a slight tribute from masters and apprentices, formed 
a revenue of 45,000 livres, which provided more than fifteen 
hundred pupils with the necessary instruction. 

“If we consider,” says a biographer, “ the influence exerted 


by it for more than half a century upon the mechanic arts, this 


school, established by Bachelier, has done great things for 
France.” 

The manufactory of Sevres owes its first progress to Bache- 
her, who directed it for forty-four years, introducing many re- 
forms in art and taste. He not only assisted Caylus to repro- 
duce the encaustic painting of the ancients, but also discovered 
another species of encaustic, used by the Greeks, to preserve 
marble statues from the injuries of the weather. 


Wun 


a : 


ii ' 


aoe iiitiea 
i Diet 








M. de Caumont. 


CHAPTER XXV. 


BOOKBINDING—LITHOGRAPHY. 


es, OME pages not without honour to the me- 
},) chanic arts, are furnished by the annals 
} of French emigration. Among the noble 





families who were obliged to leave their 
country, many could be mentioned, who, 
stripped of all their property, were obliged 
to have recourse to manual labour; thus 
verifying the almost prophetic justness of Rousseau’s solemn 
warnings, a man who was often looked upon as a visionary, be- 
cause he advocated the useful instruction of the children of the 
rich. 

** You trust,’’ said he, “to the present state of society, with- 
out reflecting that this order is subject to inevitable revolutions, 
and that it is impossible for you to foresee the fate of your chil- 
dren. The great will become insignificant, the rich will become 
poor, the monarch a subject; the blows of fortune are not so 
rare, that you may hope to be exempt from them. We are ap- 


proaching a crisis, and anage of revolutions. Who can answer’ 
(105) 


106 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


for the future? All that men have done may be overturned ; 
nature alone is eternal, and nature never made a prince, a rich 
man, or a great lord.’ 

When the critical moment arrived, this mournful truth was 
fully proved. Gentlemen, accustomed from their infancy to a 
luxurious and elegant life, and to all the pleasures of refined 
society, were suddenly reduced to the exercise of the most hum- 
ble professions. Many emigrants taught music and drawing ; 
others gave lessons in the French language, and in literature ; 
whilst the mechanic arts furnished numbers with bread. 

M. and Madame Latour du Pin, who had spent their lives at 
the French court amid a round of gaiety and splendour, removed 
to America, and took a farm on the banks of the Delaware. M. 
Latour du Pin performed by turns the duties of a field labourer, 
wood-cutter, architect, and mason ; and his wife, metamorphosed 
into an intelligent and active housekeeper, baked bread, performed 
all the household duties, and carried to. market various garden 
vegetables, and poultry raised by her own hands. 

M. de Caumont, adjutant-general, and belonging to one of the 
best French families, went to London and studied bookbinding. 

Laying aside his sword and gilded shoulder-belt, he put ona 
workman’s apron; and, animated by a noble amiation, he deter- 
mined to improve his new art. 

M. de Caumont had often admired the rich ac nal handed 
down to us from past centuries; prayer books with their brilliant 
covers ornamented with topazes and rubies; missals adorned 
with miniatures of the Byzantine art, sparkling with emeralds, 
with clasps of ivory, gold, or silver, with an amethyst in the 
centre set in silver, according to the custom of Saint Eloy, gold 
and silversmith to King Dagobert. 

Caumont’s object was not to attain a like richness in the art 
of bookbinding, but to give it a more than usual elegance. In 
this he succeeded ; his bindings were solid and at the same time 
light, and possessed a grace and elasticity which rendered them 
very valuable. In a few years, he became one of the most skil- 


- LITHOGRAPHY. 107 


ful bookbinders of his time; and English ladies of rank crowded 
to the workshop of the former French nobleman, who had lost 
none of his dignity in losing his rank. 

Let us return to the subject of inventions. The period which 
occupies us, that is to say, from the beginning of the Revolution 
to the first year of the eae government, was very fertile in — 
this respect. ~ 

Lithography, that ingenious discovery which has given a rival 
to engraving, dates from that epoch. At the beginning of this 
century, says the Encyclopedia, an ingenious man proposed a 
method. of drawing or writing upon stone, so as to obtain several 
hundred fac similes of the original upon paper. This fortunate 
discovery, of a nature to create a revolution in the arts, was not 
well received in the beginning; the composition of the pencil or 
ink used in it, being kept secret, created a suspicion of quackery. 
' Nevertheless, lithography advanced rapidly, and soon overcame 
all obstacles. 

The glory of this invention is due to a poor chorister in the 
theatre at Munich, named Aloys Sennefelder. He first observed 
the property possessed by calcareous stones, of retaining a draw- 
ing made with oleaginous ink, and of transmitting it faithfully 
to paper when strong pressure was applied. He also remarked 
that the effect could be repeated by moistening the stone, and 
renewing the ink in every line of the drawing. — 

In 1788, Sennefelder obtained from the King of Bavaria an 
exclusive privilege for the exercise of his process for thirteen 
years, and founded a lithographic establishment at Munich. 

Sennefelder made this discovery in Germany, in 1783. A 
short time after, it was introduced into France and England, by 
Mr. Andrew Frankfort; but it met with no success in France, 
whilst in England it was carried on to great advantage. 

It was not until towards 1815, that lithography was practised 
in Paris. Since then, every year has beheld new improvements 
in that art, so useful to arts and sciences. By its means, copies 
of writings are produced with an exact imitation of the hand- 


108 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


writing, where manuscripts would be inconvenient. Faithful 
copies of our best masters are also executed at a very small price. 
Manufactories have made use of lithography for ornamenting 
pottery, china, and porcelain; for printing goods of all kinds, 
leather, wood, varnished metals, &c. 

France owes these great advantages to the Count of Las- 

teyrie, an enlightened philanthropist, who made several journeys 
to Munich for purposes of observation, and formed an establish- 
ment which gave the first impulse to French lithography. 
_ When our subject shall have reached the present epoch, we 
shall have new improvements, and labour-saving methods to 
mention. Let us now merely state, that if lithography does not 
possess the purity and vigour of engraving, or were it even 
without any of the numerous advantages which cannot be denied 
to it, it has at least that of reproducing with great facility, pic- 
tures, the execution of which, if not elegant, is at least striking; 
and embraces a number of details belonging to the dominion of 
the arts and sciences. 











CHAPTER XXVI. 


STEAM POWER—MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 










oe 


<) 
aN 
\) 

C7 


: »\ EAM had long been considered 
SAS ¥ capable of the most astonishing ef- 
we fects. Our readers will recollect 
what we have already said concerning the 
researches and the labours of Solomon de 
WS Caus, Papin, and Newcomen. It was re- 
* served for science to conquer and direct this, 
mysterious power, rendering it useful for 
navigation, and consequently beneficial to science. 

Several trials had been attempted, before steam navigation was 
undertaken on a large scale. 

The illustrious Arago considers Papin as having proposed the 
application of steam to navigation forty-two years before Jona- 
than Hull, to whom the English ascribe the discovery. 

The proofs cited by M. Arago in support of his opinion are 
incontestable. Papin’s process of changing the rectilinear move- 
ment of the piston into one of continued rotation, is not inferior 
to that of the English mechanician. As to the substitution 
of wheels furnished with paddle-boards, for common oars, it is 
due to an engineer named Du Quet, in 1699. Nevertheless, 
Jonathan Hull deserves particular mention for having applied 


steam to these wheels as a motive power. 
10 (109) 


110 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


In 1775, one of the Perrier brothers constructed a steamboat. 
This was the first attempt of the kind, but was followed by 
several others on a larger scale. In 1778, the Marquis of Jouf- 
froy put a boat in motion by means of steam, and repeated his 
experiments with a boat one hundred and thirty-eight feet long, 
and fifteen wide; but being obliged to emigrate during the revo- 
lutionary troubles, steam and steamboats sank into obscurity. 

In England, experiments of the same kind were made by 
Miller, in 1791; by Lord Stanhope, in 1795; and by Syming- 
ton, in 1808, who propelled a steamboat in a canal in Scotland. 

It remained for the celebrated Fulton, of whom we have 
already spoken, when on the subject of panoramas, to put in mo- 
tion the first steamboat which appeared on the Seine. | This 
was in 1803; a few years afterwards, he built a steamboat on 
the same plan at New York, for transporting men and merchan- 
dise from that city to Albany. These first attempts were far 
from presenting the elegant appearance of the modern steam- 
boat. 

Notwithstanding the numerous improvements in the construc- 
tion of steamboats, and the invention of the safety-valve by 
Papin, so, useful for preventing explosions, it still remains to be 
desired that theory should furnish some means of imposing res- 
traints upon the ungovernable elastic power of steam; the terri- 
ble effects of which are well known in all countries. 

Chemistry, a science of which we have already related so many 
marvels, has taught us to extract sugar from the beet, a plant for- 
merly deemed utterly insignificant. Oliver de Serres, one of the 
most learned agriculturists of France, was the first who men- 
tioned this plant, which had been brought from Italy in 1599. 

-Margraff, a Prussian chemist, being acquainted with the 
nature of the beet, endeavoured to extract sugar from it in 1747. 
But he reaped no advantage from this important discovery, nor 
was it until half a century afterwards, that Charles Frederic 
Achard repeated these experiments, making use of the same 
plant (beta cycla alba), whose principal characteristic is its 


BEET-SUGAR. ill 


extreme whiteness. If the glory of the invention did not belong 
to him, that, at least, of putting principles into practice does; 
for he, in 1800, began to extract sugar from this plant. 

In the month of July, 1808, the Institute of France pronounced 
an honourable eulogium upon this Prussian invention, declaring 
it to be likely to become a source of national profit. 

To enable Achard to carry on his experiments on a larger scale, 
the King of Prussia gave him an estate at Runern, in Breslau, in 
Silesia, where this chemist established a factory, which attained 
so great a degree of improvement at the time of the continental 
blockade, as to furnish three hundred pounds of sugar daily. 
He afterwards attached a school to the establishment, for the 
study of this novel subject, which was frequented by a great 
number of strangers. Achard’s methods are to be met with in 
several works which he has published upon the extraction of 
sugar from beets. 

The sugar thus made now rivals that from sugar-cane ; ‘but 
great care and minute research have been required, as well as 
the careful culture of the beet. | 

M. C. Tollard the elder, (Article Beet, in the Dictionary of 
Conversation) claims the honour of this agricultural innova- 
tion— : 

“‘ Before the extraction of sugar from beets was practise in 
' France, and before the government had commanded it to replace 
that of the colonies, I had, in my Treatise upon Vegetables, men- 
tioned the existence of saccharine in the plant, and spoken of 
the factories established in Prussia, by Achard, Director of the 
class of physics in the Academy of Sciences at Berlin; and on 
this occasion, that philosopher wrote to me on the 4th of April, 
1804, from Runern, near Steinau, in Silesia, where was his plan- 
tation and his factory. I was, therefore, the first in France to 
point out and propose the extensive cultivation of the beet. I 
have devoted much attention to this subject.” | 

Go into one of our numerous sugar-houses: observe the 
fine quality of the products, &c., &c. There is no need to speak 


112 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


of the rapid increase of this new article of trade, upon which, 
according to some, a limit should be placed, or the great amount 
produced will, before long, by causing excessive competition, be- 
come rather an evil than otherwise, to those employed in the 
sale of it. | 

Tt is not our design to offer our readers dry statistics, in 
which the precise order of dates should be scrupulously ob- 
served ; nor has it been our plan to present a collection of minute 
biographical notices, beginning at the birth of a celebrated man, 
and terminating at his death. In either of these cases, it would 
have been indispensable to adopt a different system from that 
which we have followed. Wishing merely to pass in review the 
scenes of the work-shop, especially those which, through useful 
inventions, or other memorable benefits, have sacred claims upon 
the gratitude and veneration of the labouring classes, it has 
appeared to us more appropriate and more interesting to group 
all these diverse remarkable portraits in cotemporaneous frames, 
without hesitating to cast an occasional glance into the past or 
the future, for the sake of recurring to the origin of a discovery, 
or of following the course of its progress. Such is the object 
we have desired to attain, such the plan we have heretofore 
followed, and to which we shall faithfully adhere throughout our 
subject. 








CHAPTER XXVII. 


ARCHITECTURE OF DWELLING-HOUSES—FORTIFICATIONS. 


OWARDS the end of the eighteenth century, 
# and the beginning of the nineteenth, the ex- 
Py istence of the French republic was more nomi- 

<S~« nal than real. One great man, already immor- 
= talized by glorious victories, was preparing a 
Whe ‘with his powerful hand. The public mind, fatigued 
with the irregularities of anarchy, felt the want of internal 
peace, of order, and of prosperity, to commerce and the arts. 
Manufactories opened on all sides; the song of the workman 
mingled with the grating of the file, and with the heavy blows 
of the hammer on the sonorous anvil. 

‘“¢ The choice of materials,” says M. Charles Dupin, “and the 
care and attention employed upon them, marks the opulent pos- 
sessor. The levelling spirit of the age betrayed itself in the 

10* (113) 





114 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


new mode of building houses, with an increased regard to con- 
venience and health.” 

The middle classes improved in taste, that gratuitous wealth 
of a civilized people which can embellish the humblest dwelling ; 
without any additional expense, it brings doors and windows to 
a uniform height, whereas, in former buildings, these were never 
similar, symmetrical, regular, or rectilinear. The low price at 
which glass could be obtained caused the old-fashioned small 
panes. to be replaced by large ones; the staircase was placed 
inside ; the opaque shutter gave way to the light and agreeable 
Venetian blind; the ground floor, formerly so damp and un- 
healthy, was raised, and rendered dry and comfortable. . . The 
peasant felt the advantages of this system; and, by degrees, be- 
came accustomed to the use of glass in his window instead of 
oiled paper. The ancient tiled floors gave way to a brick pave- 
ment; the stool to a chair, &c., &c. 

These improvements were introduced by degrees, although with 
some rapidity. Interior arrangements progressed in the same 
manner. Locksmiths, joiners, and other household artisans, 
gained a new impulse. Metals were drawn out, and iron plates 
rolled into cylinders, and mouldings of various kinds. A taste 
for stucco work, castings, columns, cornices, capitals, and various 
similar luxuries, spread through all classes. 

At the same time the great labours, begun under the old mo- 
narchy, were again undertaken, and carried on with new vigour. 

Louis XVI. entertained the idea of making Cherbourg im- 
portant as a fortified town, as well as a commercial one, and a 
military port; and had put some of his plans into practice, when 
he was interrupted by the Revolution. The proximity of Cape 
Hogue, in recalling the memory of the ancient Coricillum, gave 
a deep interest to these labours. It was thought necessary to 
give this town two entirely separate ports: one for commercial, 
the other for military purposes. A breakwater was also needed 
to protect the anchorage of the bay. The construction of this 
breakwater presented so many difficulties, that its execution was 


FORTIFICATIONS. OF; CHERBOURG. 115 


looked upon. as something gigantic. The depth of the'water in 
the southern seas added to the obstacles which impeded the plan; 
but the man of genius and determination, who said, and proved 
by frequent actions, that there was no such word as impossible, 
resolved to realize this vast project. This was at the beginning 
of 1803. The hero*of Italy and Egypt was then only first 
consul of the republic. Adopting the plan of Cachin, the engi- 
neer, he directed that the port should be constructed fifty feet 
below high tide, for the reception of the largest. men-of-war. 
Wooden cones, sixty-nine feet high, with a diameter of one 
hundred and forty feet at the base, and sixty at the summit, 
were erected. These were filled with stones, and sunk; the in- 
tervals were also filled with stones, thrown in at random. Over- 
turned at first by the waves, the mass of accumulated stones 
offers a powerful resistance to the violence of tempests, and is 
of great use in the preservation of vessels anchored in the hay. 
This mass is composed of 500,000 cubic fathoms of waste 
stones, and of enormous blocks of freestone and granite, brought 
from the Roule Mountain. The object of this breakwater is to 
diminish the fury of the winds and waves, so as to procure a 
calm in the interior, and to protect the parts of the bay which 
are beyond the reach of the artillery of the fort. 

It would take too long to enumerate all the improvements 
since made at Cherbourg; they are on a very large scale, and 
there remains yet more to be done. The bay now offers an ex- 
cellent anchorage; it is defended by three forts: the Royal Fort, 
the Fort d’Artois, and that of Querqueville. The commercial 
port is very convenient, and forms an excellent place of refuge 
to all the coasting-vessels in this latitude. 

The military port is defended by a tower-like enceinte, with 
a moat partly dry. Hollowed out in the Galet rock, it presents 
an outer harbour, which, even during low tide, has twenty- 
five feet of water. Ships, which are continually arriving here, 
remain a short time in safety,°and are afloat in all states of the 


116° ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


tide. It is surrounded by magazines and buildings connected 
with the service, and can contain thirty vessels of the line. 

Let us return to those scientific men who have done so much 
for the arts, and for humanity itself. 

Guyton De Morveau, by the discovery of the peculiar pro- 
perties of chlorine, succeeded in overcoming the ill effects caused 
by the exhalations from decayed animal or yegetable matter. 
His object was to prevent infection in hospitals and prisons ; but 
the plan has been extended to dwellings and workshops, and 
also manufactories, where any deleterious substances are used. 








Berthollet. 


CHAPTER XXVIII. 


IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN DYEING BY BERTHOLLET—HIS 
HEROISM—VACCINATION IN FRANCE—AGRICULTURE,. 


ERTHOLLET, another chemist, a 
disciple and rival of Lavoisier, distin- 
guishe himself in the annals of me- 
chanic arts, by indicating the use of 
E- WW chlorine, then called oxymuriatic acid, 
“ay for dyeing. ; 
91 ~~“ Cloth,” says M. Gaultier de Clau- 

oe bry, “upon leaving the hands of the 
weaver, bears a faint colour, which must be made to disappear 
entirely, before the material can be dyed. This was formerly 
effected by bleaching on the grass, and repeated washings, a 


long and inconvenient process, and one requiring great. extent 
(117) 





118 ‘ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


of ground. Berthollet substituted the chemical process, now 
in general use, and which has also been applied to the preparation 
of paper, which is now brought to a degree of perfection, never 
attained under the old methods. . 

Berthollet united great energy of character to remarkable 
scientific capacity. M. Pariset, in his eulogium on this great 
chemist, relates an anecdote which deserves to be made public. 
During the bloody period of the revolution, when the self-con- 
stituted tyrants of France exacted an implicit obedience, under 
penalty of death, Berthollet was commanded to examine some 
brandy, suspected of being poisoned. Meeting with no injurious 
substance in it; he sent in a favourable report, which, however, 
did not satisfy them, as their object was to get rid of him, and 
take possession of his property. He was sent for and. interro- 
gated. 

“Are you sure of what you tell us?” asked those in au- 
thority, in ferocious accents. 

“ Perfectly sure?’ replied Berthollet, with calmness. 

“‘ Would you be willing to make the experiment on yourself?” 

Berthollet filled a glass and drank it off. 

‘You are very bold,” remarked one. 

‘‘ Less so now than when I wrote my report,” replied the 
courageous chemist. | 

Towards the close of the eighteenth century, science taught 
men to overcome that fearful scourge, the small-pox, which an- 
nually carried off one-tenth of the inhabitants of the fields and 
villages, attacking with redoubled fury the poorer classes, who 
were deprived of the comforts of life. 

In several parts of England, distinguished for their excellent 
pasturage, especially in Gloucester, the cattle are subject to an 
eruption on the udder. It was observed that this eruption was 
communicated to the hands of the milkmaids, and that, having 
caught it, these people were afterwards exempt from the con- 
tagion of the small-pox, from which numbers around them were 
suffering. 


VACCINATION. 119 


Dr. Jenner turned his attention to this subject, and submitted 
it to various experiments, for the purpose of ascertaining the pre- 
cise nature of the facts. He remarked, that many individuals, 
who had more or less lately caught the vaccine from cows, did 
not take the small-pox upon being inoculated ; the slight nature 
of the disease thus communicated, induced him to vaccinate 
several people, who also experienced no effects at all fend subse- 
quent inoculation. 

These experiments, according to the authors of the Diction- 
naire des Origines, were repeated in London, where numbers, 
of different ages, were vaccinated with great success. 

The renown of this interesting discovery soon travelled to 
Paris, where new experiments were made, and the vaccine pro- 
pagated. In three or four years, from 1798 to 1802, it made 
the tour of Europe, and penetrated into Asia. 

The glory of this discovery is not entirely owing to England. 
Rabaud Pommier, a brother of Rabaud Saint Etienne, a Pro- 
testant minister, had an idea of this valuable improvement be- 
fore Jenner, who, however, by his experiments first established 
the efficacy of the vaccine, and put it in practice. A public 
benefit, whose importation and propagation in France are due, — 
as we have once before said, to the enlightened zeal, the virtu- 
ous philanthropy of La Rochefoucauld Liancourt! A benefit 
also providential, in that it saves whole generations from a dread- 
ful death, or a hideous living deformity, and materially aids the 
progress of agricultural improvement by retaining in its service 
thousands of vigorous labourers. — 

If we turn our attention to the subject of agriculture, the art 
which provides the working class with food, we must not forget 
to do homage to the memory of Brémontier, a naturalist and 
ilosopher. It was he who first planted downs, or dunes, and 
invented an ingenious process for arresting the course of the 
moving mountains of sand, which threatened to invade, by de- 
grees, all the cultivated land, and to render it sterile. He also 





120 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


taught the art of fertilizing sandy soils, and making them pro- 
ductive. 

A short time after the death of the unhappy Louis XVL., 
French agriculture, and French commerce also, began to profit 
by the merino sheep, brought from Spain, whose fleece is so fine 
and thick. 

The Spanish government forbade the exportation of this breed 
of sheep, and it was merely as objects of curiosity that Louis 
XVI. was able to obtain a few individuals of the race, which 
were placed in the royal park at Rambouillet. ‘* Thence,” says 
M. Charles Dupin, “ sprang the line of sheep from which France 
has derived so much benefit. Proposals were made to farmers 
to undertake the care of these animals, but, strange to say, were 
refused, until a price was put upon them, when they were readily 
disposed of.” 

Daubenton, the illustrious rival of Buffon, deserves eternal 
gratitude on the part of France, for his efforts in this branch 
of industry. We will give the words of the above-mentioned 
learned man :— | 

‘From 1766 until 1808, Daubenton abandoned, in some de- 
gree, his former researches in comparative anatomy, and began 
the study of the Spanish sheep, their diet, and the treatment 
of them in various respects. He discovered a method of re- 
fining the fleece, by a system of careful and continued attention, 
applied to the unmixed race, and invented a micrometer for mea- 
suring the most delicate wool. He established a sheep-fold on 
an extended scale, which became a school of shepherds, having 
at its head a man of genius, a talented professor. He presented 
his products to the most skilful weaver, as a proof that Spanish 
wool is in no wise deteriorated by being produced on a French 
soil; and he, Daubenton, was obliged to wait seventeen years 
before the manufacturers would give him one trial (in 1783) ;— 
before the valuable facts brought to light by him were of suffi- 
cient strength to overcome the force of prejudice. This learned 
man went farther still ; he affirmed that, through his method, the 


DAUBENTON. 121 


wool grown in France possessed more beauty and more equali- 
ty of length than that of Spain. 

“The indefatigable Daubenton did not suspend his studies 
until he had composed a set of agricultural instructions for the 
people, pointing out all the advantages to be gained by the con- 
tirluation of the mongrel, as well as the pure breed, either with 
respect to present or future profit. He did much towards the 
enlightenment of the shepherds, upon whose care and judgment 
the welfare and prosperity of the flocks so much depend. 

“Under the National Convention, when Daubenton required 
an immunity from persecution, he obtained it in the humble 
capacity of a shepherd. Seven years afterwards, when the first 
consul was forming a conservative senate, to be composed only 
of men who had been eminently useful to their country, he sought 
Daubenton at his sheep-fold, and placed him side by side with 
generals, judges, and the most learned men of the age.” 

Before concluding our work, we shall more than once have 
occasion to recur to Daubenton, and the wonderful progress of 
that branch of art, which, it may be said, originated with him. 








CHAPTER XXIX. 


LEPAUTE—CLOCK AND WATCH-MAKING— 
JULIEN LEROY—PIERRE LEROY. 


¥/ N the year 1802, died the celebrated watchmaker, 
~ Jean Baptiste Lepaute. Let us speak a few words 
on the subject of this family of illustrious mechanics. 
Jean André Lepaute, the elder brother of the one 
just mentioned, was born at Montmedy, in 1709. 
2% He repaired to Paris at an early age, where he 
entered into friendship with the geometrician Clairaut, and La- 
lande, the astronomer. He executed, in 1753, for the Luxem- 
bourg palace, the first horizontal clock ever seen. He invented 
an escapement which is esteemed one of the best. He presented 
Louis XV., in 1751, with a watch which had but one wheel. 
In his treatise on horology, he gives a description of a clock 
which never required winding up; but this was not a perpetual 
motion in the strict acceptation of the word. “aaa 
A clock of his is also mentioned, which he called polycame- 
ratic, because it struck the hour in the different rooms of a 
house. Jean André Lepaute was of great service to his art; 
he was one of the small number of artists who know how to 
unite to theory the practice of the physical and mathematical 
sciences. | 
As to Jean Baptiste Lepaute, he was his brother’s most 
assiduous companion and assistant. His most admired produc- 
tion is the fine clock in the Hotel de Ville at Paris, wnich is 
considered a masterpiece of art. 





(122) 


TIMEPIECES. > 123 


Another artist, and a competitor of Bréguet, deserves a distin- 
guished place in our gallery. Ferdinand Berthoud has_ be- 
queathed his talents to his descendants. A Swiss by birth, and 
destined by his family to the pulpit, his natural tastes showed a 
strong inclination to clock-making, and induced him to come to 
Paris to study this art, as well as mechanism in general. 

Ferdinand Berthoud is the first who firmly established the 
theory according to which machines for the measurement of time 
in common use are constructed. His essay upon:watch-making, 
and his treatise upon marine timepieces, are highly valuable to 
the French nation, i 

His marine timepieces were examined by Borda and other 
men of science, who proved that they showed the true longitude 
at sea within a quarter of a degree, or five points at the utmost, 
after a six weeks’ voyage. It may also be remarked, that their 
regularity was in nowise affected by the firing of cannon. Fer- 
dinand Berthoud, like Bréguet, a member of the Institute, con- 
tributed as well as he to the progress of science, both by disco- 
veries and experiments. This illustrious clockmaker educated 
a pupil worthy of himself: this was Louis Berthoud, who gained 
a prize at the Institute in 1799, for a chronometer for the deci- 
mal division of time. 

He constructed chronometers whose beauty and accuracy 
were appreciated by all men of learning ; and he obtained, besides 
the title of marine watchmaker, the privilege of taking pupils, 
whom he instructed in his art. In after years, his sons proved 
by the success attendant upon their efforts, as seen at the annual 
exhibitions, that the family had in nowise degenerated. 

Nothing contributes so much to the glory of the arts as heredi- 
tary talent in families. Of this, we have already cited several 
examples. The end of the last century presents one, which we 
must not pass over in silence. _ | 

Let us go back to the year 1686. In that year was born 
Julien Leroy, at Tours, who from his earliest infancy betrayed 
a decided talent for mechanism. At the age of thirteen, he 


124 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


constructed several little clocks. Some years afterwards, he 
went to Paris to perfect himself in the theory and practice of his 
art, and soon rose to distinction, his watches rivalling those of 
the English, heretofore sole masters of the science. 

Graham, the most celebrated English watchmaker, upon 
seeing a watch made by Leroy, paid the following honourable 
tribute to the young man’s talents: “I sincerely wish,” said 
he, “ that I were younger, so that I might make a watch in imi- 
tation of this.” 

Voltaire said one day to one of Leroy’s sons, “ Your father 
and Marshal Saxe have conquered the English.” 

We must add to Leroy’s praises, that he was benevolent ; 
that he sought out the indications of talent in his workmen, 
assisting them with money ; and when satisfied with their labours, 
it was his custom to pay very high wages. i 

After his death, his son, Pierre Leroy, profiting by his 
father’s instructions and example, was crowned by the Academy 
for his marine timepieces, which were as remarkable for precision 
as simplicity. 


o 





CHAPTER XXX.. 


LAMPS—ARTIFICIAL LIMBS, ETC. 


oi 


, 
y < 
$ Bi A (h 
: = x a 


Wy tif AMPS, from the time 
WY Leg Zz f Argand down to the 
4 A present day, have un- 
dergone great improve- 
_ Inents. 
First on our list, 
\ S86 stands Lebon’s thermo- 
RA ji lamp, invented in 1799, 
a wy Ans seg two 7 
aye terwards, gained him 
y= a gold medal. Lebon 
SZ discovered a method of 
in some degree condensing the flame produced by ordinary com- 
bustion, and thereby giving it a brilliancy sufficient for a large 
apartment, an entry, or a staircase. 
As M. Charles Dupin observes, Lebon made use in his lamps 
of the carburetted hydrogen, since employed for lighting streets. 
After the thermo-lamp, comes the docizmastic lamp,-or fountain 
of fire, excellent for soldering metals, glass-blowing, and various 
mineralogical experiments. The inventor was Bortin. 
Previously, in oil lamps, the reservoir was placed above the 
burner, thereby causing an inconvenient shadow. It was very 
desirable to find a means of obviating this difficulty, as well as 
of preventing the continually recurring necessity of bringing the 
oil to a level with the flame. 
Carcel, whose name, like that of Quinquet, enjoys a universal 
~ celebrity, was the first who, towards 1800, constructed a lamp 


which shed a strong light on all sides without any shadow 
1i* (125) 





126 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


whatsoever. This was effected by means of internal me- 
chanism. 3 

In the Carcel lamp, the reservoir is at the foot, and the oil is 
raised to the wick by means of a small pump. A wheel-work 
acted upon by a spring, says the Dictionary of Conversations, 
and which is wound up like a watch, sets in motion two pumps, 
which continually raise the oil to the burner. This wheel- 
work will act eight or ten hours without winding up. : 

There is reason to believe, that if the inventor had lived 
longer, he would have successively applied the various improve- 
ments of which this lamp is capable. It is also probable that 
-he would have reduced its price; for the present Carcel lamp is 
very expensive. The light of this lamp is very injurious to the 
eye, from its extreme brilliancy; and a shade of ground glass, 
or gauze, is generally used, and lately one of porcelain, of a 
cylindrical or prismatic form, ornamented with figures in relief, 
presenting very much the appearance of a fine English engraving. 

The Girard brothers were rivals of Carcel, and arrived at the 
same result as he, by an ingenious application of the hydrostatic 
fountain. 

Whilst these numerous inventions enriched the dominion of 
industry, the French armies, defending the territories of their re- 
public with heroic energy, opposed victory after victory to the 
incessant attacks of a formidable coalition. Nevertheless, these 
regiments of brave soldiers, who went so gayly forward to meet 
death, were in absolute want of the necessaries of life. <A 
patriotic enthusiasm sustained them under numerous privations. 
The Marseilles Hymn inspired them with a generous ardour. 
Glory was sufficient indemnification for all sacrifices. To re- 
pulse the enemy was the all-absorbing idea. ‘The youth, become 
a soldier often against his will, rivalled those who enlisted 
voluntarily ; and, developing his energies on the field of battle, 
rose rapidly to the rank of general, and learned to command 
with great skill, uniting the fearless intrepidity of youth to the 


TANNING. . 127 


reflective courage of age. How many heroes might have said, 
like the one of Corneille, 
“Je suis jeune, il est vrai, mais aux 4mes bien nées, 
La valeur n’attend pas le nombre des années.” 

Nevertheless, these poor fellows were often without bread to 
eat, and had only rags to wear; but no head hung down timid- 
ly, no hand held a musket less firmly, no heart flinched before 
the enemy. The bivouacs sometimes offered a curious spec- 
tacle. Here and there might be seen a soldier taking advantage 
of a few leisure moments to mend his shoes, which had already 
lost all appearance of upper-leather, whilst the sentinels dragged 
heavily after them immense wooden sabots. 

The government was anxious to provide for these urgent 
wants, but this was a matter of some difficulty. To supply all 
the numerous French armies with shoes, would have required 
an outlay entirely disproportioned to the funds, and the mere 
tanning of all the necessary leather would require a whole year. 

Armand Seguin, by a close attention to the subject, discovered 
a mode of preparing leather, by which he reduced to the space 
of a month this hitherto long and tedious process; and, although 
still far from perfection, his plan was adopted, to the great bene- 
fit of the French army. 4 

The mutilated condition of many of our veterans now began 
to attract public attention, and wooden arms and legs were con- 
structed to supply those sacrificed to the enemy’s fire, or the 
surgeon’s steel. These, although without the glory of being 
an invention, are to be ranked high as a useful improvement. 

The mechanician Laurent or Laurens, son of a sluice-keeper 
of Bouchain, became justly celebrated, by the skilful application 
of his art, and the more 0, as he was almost entirely without 
education. He drained marshes in Flanders and Hainault, 
which had ‘been abandoned as impracticable ; facilitated the na- 
vigation of the Scarpe, and constructed sluices in other rivers, 
where they were much needed. The junction of the Escaut ‘and 
the Somme presented insurmountable difficulties; but Laurens 


128 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


determined to master them. He effected this by a subterranean 
canal, three leagues in length, which united with the Escaut, 
forty-five feet above its source, and with the Somme, fifteen feet 
below its bed. 

The beautiful falls of water at Brunoy and Chauteloup, are 
also the works of Laurens. | 

We must not omit to mention an artificial arm, constructed by 
Laurens for an invalid soldier, by the aid of which he wrote a 
petition in the presence of the king, and presented it to him, al- 
though but four or five inches of one arm remained to the man, 
and nothing at all of the other. 

Long before this mechanician, there had been fortunate ex- 
periments made in this branch of art. Ambroise Paré, the cele- 
brated surgeon of the sixteenth century, speaks, in one of his 
works, of hands, arms, &c., of forged iron. We read also, in 
Fontenelle’s Eulogium on P. Sebastian Truchet, that Gunter- 
field, a Swedish gentleman, came to Paris, to provide himself 
with two hands, having lost his origmal ones in battle, and hav- 
ing but two short stumps left. He desired to have arms made, 
which should, in being fastened to these stumps, move with them, 
and terminate in flexible fingers. ‘The English, little accustomed 
to acknowledge the superiority of Franee, sent him to Sebastian 
Truchet, who had already exhibited several of his works to the 
Academy. But being called upon to execute the Orleans canal, 
he abandoned his former occupations, probably without much 
regret, to a mechanician with whose talents he was well ac- 
quainted, and whom he judged able to follow, or to improve 
upon, his own views. This was Duquet, whose inventions were 
approved of by the Academy, and who made an arm which 
would raise itself to the head, take off the hat, and put it on 
again. But Gunterfield, wearied with the delay required for 
all this, and become, by long habit, aceustomed to the privation, 
left Paris and returned home. . 

At the time of the wars of the republic, this useful invention 
was again taken up, and received considerable improvements. 


| 


ARTIFICIAL ARMS. 129 


_In 1798, Thevenin obtained a medal from the Lyceum of 
Arts, for the invention of an artificial hand, which imitated the 
movements of the natural hand. The ends of the fingers were 
furnished with little moveable pieces, which, being lightly 
pressed, set in motion springs, indicating to the stump the degree 
of pressure requisite for the object held in the fingers. 

In 1801, Bernard, a writing-master in Paris, invented a sup- 
plementary artificial arm; by means of which, a man without 
arms could write and mend his pens with ease. 

An invalid, who had left both arms on the field of battle, made 
a trial of this artificial arm in the presence of a numerous assem- 
bly, and wrote and mended pens with such success as to strike 
all the beholders with admiration. 

Knowledge on all scientific subjects now advanced rapidly. 
The progress of mineralogy, physics, and chemistry, involved 
that of the ceramic arts, that is to say, those which produced 
bricks, tiles, and various kinds of pottery, for domestic uses. 
Towards the end of the last century, Fourmy, a skilful potter, 
endeavoured to bring this branch of art to great perfection, by 
rendering earthenware less porous, and obtaining any earthy 
varnish as fusible as if it contained lead. In all this he suc- 
ceeded admirably ; but made the common mistake of raising his 
prices, and thereby prev ante his improvements from becoming 
popular. 

At the exhibition of 1802, a large wade: in terra cotta was 
exhibited. It was the lantern of Demosthenes, a Corinthian 
rotunda, remarkable for its lightness and elegance. It was 
afterwards placed in the park at Saint Cloud. 

Weaving next claims our attention. The flying shuttle, the 
instrument used by weavers to guide the thread it contains, so as 
to form the woofs of stuffs, cloth, linen, and other fabrics, had been 
invented for more than half a century ; but its use was little known. 
Weavers had been in the habit of throwing the shuttle across. 
the stuff, which, when it exceeded three feet in width, required 
two men at each machine; one throwing from right to left, the 


ra ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


other from left to right. John Ray invented a simple and in- 
genious improvement: this was the flying shuttle, by means of 
which one man could weave stuffs of all widths, twice as fast as 
formerly and without any assistance. ‘The flying shuttle was first 
used in woollen factories, but was not employed in the fabrica- 
tion of cotton for some years, that branch of industry being con- 
sidered too unimportant to attract public attention. 

Under Necker’s administration, Delasalle, a manufacturer of 
Lyons, invented new improvements, which he obtained per- 
mission to place in the Chateau of the Tuileries. He exhibited 
flying shuttles very superior to those in common use, and des- 
tined for making gauzes, and other wide stuffs. Delasalle was 
rewarded by a pension, and an admittance into the order of 
Saint Michael. Nevertheless, he is not the inventor of the 
flying shuttle, but the Englishman, John Ray, who first brought 
it into use in 1738. National vanity should never exceed the 
bounds of truth. Delasalle could not invent what existed before 
he himself. But we will do him the justice to admit that he 
was the originator of many useful improvements. 

In 1801, appeared the Bauwen brothers, from Passy, with a 
new flying shuttle, which attracted general attention. The 
French government favoured the establishment of these indus- 
trious men, by furnishing them with workmen from all other 
manufactories. 

Two names, rendered celebrated by heretofore-mentioned 
discoveries, are associated together, and renowned by the in- 
vention of a new hydraulic or water ram. Mongolfier made 
the first application of his machine at his paper-making esta 
blishment in Vorron, in Dauphiny. 

The only condition indispensable to the employment of the 
hydraulic ram, was a sufficient fall of water; for, as has been 
remarked, the momentum of a stream of water flowing through 
a long pipe, will raise a small quantity of water to a considera- 
ble height; and consequently, is able to set any machinery in 
motion. In a word, the hydraulic ram unites the advantages of 


THE WATER RAM. 7 131 


turning water to a useful purpose, to procuring a constant and 
abundant supply, and is besides the least expensive mechanism 
-in this line. 

The water arriving at the reservoir with the velocity due to 
the height of the fall, is received in a pipe which has a slight 
inclination during its whole length. This pipe, closed at the 
lower extremity, is called the body of the ram; the horizontal 
portion is the head of the ram; upon this head are made two 
orifices, upon which two valves fit exactly, and which open and 
shut in opposite directions from each other. There is an ascen- 
sional tube rising from the reservoir. The valves are formed of 
hollow balls supported on muzzles, and are of such a thickness 
that they weigh about twice as much as the quantity of water 
they displace. The water flowing through one orifice, acquires 
the velocity due to the height of the fall, and raises one ball 
from its support till it comes to the other orifice. The extremity 
of this orifice is covered with leather, or with cloth filled with 
pitch, so that when the ball is applied to it, the passage of the 
water is effectually prevented. As soen as this orifice is closed, 
the water raises the second ball or valve, and introduces itself 
into the ascensional tube. Meanwhile it gradually loses its 
rapidity and force, and the balls. fall down in consequence, the 
one on its support, the other on its orifice. When this takes 
place, every thing is in the same state in which it was at first. 
The water begins again to flow through the orifice; one valve 
is shut, the other open; and the same effects are repeated in an 
interval of time which, for the same ram, undergoes little vari- 
ation. 

As the ascending column of water communicates with the air 
in the reservoir above, this would soon be exhausted if a fresh 
portion of air were not introduced at each stroke of the ram. 
The little tube which is stopped by a valve opening inwards, 
serves for this purpose. At the instant when the first orifice 
closes, a recoil takes place, by which the water is thrown back 


132 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


from the head of the ram towards the cistern, and a partial 
vacuum being thus produced within the cylinder, the pressure 
of the external atmosphere forces open the valve in the ascen- 
sional pipe, and a portion of air enters the cylinder, whence it 
is driven into the reservoir. In this manner the water is raised 
without interruption, both by means of the power of the ram 
and the elasticity of the air. 











CHAPTER XXXI. 
PAPER AND PRINTING. 


12 oS SANTIL 1799, paper had been made upon 
- G the old plan; but man’s labour was a slow 
ete and ineffectual means, compared with that 

of machinery. 

About this time, Louis Robert, a me- 
chanician of the pretty town of Essone, 
near Corbeil, invented a machine for mak- 
ing paper on a vast scale. 

The following is a summary description of this machine :— 
*‘ The stuff having been prepared and bleached,” says M. Gaul- 
tier de Claubry, “falls through a pipe into a large wooden tub, 
where it is kept in continual motion by means of revolving 
fans, and thence passes through an opening, down upon an end- 
less web of fine wire, which is kept continually moving in a 
horizontal direction over a series of revolving rollers; the water 
partially sinks through the fine apertures of the webbing, and 
the pulp alone is retained. From this it travels to a web of 
cloth or felt, and after being pressed between rollers covered 
with either of these materials, is dried upon cylinders, and, 
lastly, unrolled upon drums, which, when full, are replaced by 
others. The various processes are highly interesting to the be- 
holder; from the trituration of the rags, and their separation 
from the water, to the formation of wide sheets, of indefinite 
length, which are fit for use as soon as dried, a process rapidly 
effected by means of heat applied to the cylinders. , 

12 (133) 





134. ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


“ This. mode of making paper is one of great utility; for by 
it immense quantities are produced in sheets of all sizes, which 
are brought to perfection in one single operation.” 

We have already mentioned the early efforts in favour of 
printing, made by Guttemburg, Laurentius Coster, Faust, and 
Scheffer. Since the fifteenth century, this art, which does so 
much honour to the genius and patience of the inventors, has 
made rapid progress, and received much assistance from the la- 
bours of several families of rank. A short account of them will 
not be out of place. et 

Aldus. Manutius was the chief of the family of printers of 
that name, which acquired so much renown whilst the art was 
new: No one. contributed more than this learned man to the 
perfection of the art of printing. 

By his indefatigable perseverance in deciphering manuscripts, 
his patience in comparing texts, and supplying the omissions of 
copyists, and the enlightened taste with which he selected from 
the various readings, contributed immediately and directly to the 
progress of mind and civilization. It was he who first printed 
Greek, and with very little abbreviation. The edition of Aris- 
totle’s works, published at Venice, from 1494 to 1498, will 
always be regarded as a curious typographical monument. The 
folio was the only size in use, a very inconvenient one. Aldus 
Manutius entertained the fortunate idea of substituting the ele- 
gant and convenient octavo. He introduced a character similar 
to handwriting, which was called Aldius, from his name, and 
was said to be an imitation of Petrarch’s writing, and much su- 
perior to the heavy Gothic. 

Aldus Manutius was, in truth, a sort of prodigy in his almost 
barbarous age, when literary acquirements were confined to a 
limited number of studious men. His zeal was really remark- 
able. Having been much disturbed in his learned researches by 
numerous idle acquaintances, he placed a notice upon his door, 
requesting visiters not to enter, except on business, and to take 
leave as soon as possible. 


THE ESTIENNES, — 135 


Who is not also acquainted with the name of Elzevir, or El- 
zevier, which has immortalized so many printers in Leyden and 
Amsterdam? The lovers of books will never forget that the 
republic of letters is in debt to this illustrious family for various 
editions of classic authors, which are masterpieces of typogra- 
phy, and especially remarkable for their small and delicate cha- 
racters, and their general beauty of appearance, internal and 
external. 

The numerous and learned family of Estienne, also rank high 
among the friends of printing. From the time of Henry Esti- 
enne, the first of the name, who died in 1520, and who may 
be looked upon as the inventor of the errata, down to that of 
Antoine Estienne, who died at the Hotél Dieu, in Paris, in 1674, 
this family printed numerous works of distinction, and ennobled 
the art by a perfect knowledge of languages and belles lettres. 

Robert Estienne, the most illustrious of them all, understood 
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The historian De Thou said of him 
*« France owes more to Robert Estienne, for having improved 
the art of printing, than to her greatest captains, for having ex- 
tended her territory.” It is said that, in order to render his 
works more correct, he published the proofs, and liberally re- 
warded any one who would point out faults. The most distin- 
guished of his editions are the Hebrew Bible, the Greek Testa- 
ment, (in the printing of which, there is but one single mistake, 
one misplaced letter,) and his Thesaurus Lingue Latine. Es- 
tienne enjoyed the protection of Francis the First, although he 
was a follower of Calvin. In the following reign, meeting with 
persecution, on this account, he retired to Geneva, where he 
died in 1559. 

“The Estienne family,” says a biographer, “have placed 
themselves at the head of printing, by the beauty and correctness 
of their published works.” The most learned and illustrious 
men condescended to correct their proofs, and the erudite annalist 
of printing, Mattaire, wrote their history. . 

The Barbons, by their fine editions of classic authors, and 


136 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Christopher Plantin, by his magnificent Bible, called the Poly- 
glott, did honour to the art of printing. The latter, who died 
in 1589, and bore the title of arch-printer to the King of Spain, 
neglected no means of bringing printing to perfection, never re- 
garding expense as any obstacle to procuring beautiful charac- 
ters, or learned correctors. It is even said that he made use of 
Silver types. ; 

In the last century, Italy gave birth to one whose glory 
rivalled that of the celebrated Aldus Manutius. This was Bo- 
doni, immortalized by his fine and solid editions of the Greek 
and Latin classics.) He was employed at Rome, in the Pro- 
paganda Fides printing establishment, in his youth, where he 
conceived the idea that printing was as highly susceptible of 
improvement as painting or statuary. Some years afterwards, 
he founded the printing establishment at Parma, which bears his 
name, and whence have issued so many admirable books; ad- 
mirable for the clearness of the text, the beauty of the paper, 
and the elegant style which pervades them throughout. 

Bodoni himself superintended the casting of the types used in 
his establishment, and reduced them to a size which was agree- 
able to the eye. Uniting science to skill, he corrected the proofs 
with the greatest care and attention; and nothing. gave him 
greater grief than the discovery that any mistake, however 
slight, had been suffered to enter one of his books; so jealous 
was he of the reputation of his establishment, and deeply in- 
terested in the improvement of his art. 

In the course of the 18th century, a new art offered great 
advantages to printing; advantages which, in some cases, tend 
greatly to advance its usefulness. We speak of the Stereotype, — 
that is to say, the art of casting permanent plates of letters from 
a plaster cast, in which an exact representation of the types has 
been made. The first attempts at printing were, in fact, stereo- 
types made with solid plates, upon which all the characters in- 
cluded in a page were imprinted in relief. At the present day, 
the term is only applied to impressions made with plates of fused 


STEREOTYPING. | 137 


type metal upon pages composed of ordinary characters, or 
those engraved upon copper in intaglio instead of relief. 

After 1735, the printer Wallyre made use of stereotype fused 
plates. It is not, therefore, proper to ascribe the invention of 
this typographical process to William Ged, a jeweller in Edin- 
burg, who, in printing his stereotype edition of Sallust in 1739, 
only improved upon the method long in use in France. 

This art was still in a state of great imperfection when Firmin 
Didot, by processes of his own invention, gave it a more brilliant, 
and especially a more useful impulse. This was in 1797. 

Didot’s stereotype was at first applied, and with great success, 
to the logarithmic tables of Gallet, which by this means at- 
tained great accuracy. This skilful typographer executed, by 
the same process, the great decimal tables of the register of lands, 
prepared by a body of accomptants under the direction of M. 
Prony. Some time afterwards, improving upon his invention, he 
introduced a new and more ‘simple kind of stereotype, with 
which he published editions of the French classics, which tended 
to keep up a taste for literature through all Europe. These are 
known by the name of stereotypes ; a name given them by Fir- 
min Didot himself, and which has been adopted into the French 
language. | 

Firmin Didot’s services to the art of printing did not end here. 
The invention of beautiful characters in imitation of handwrit- 
ing, did him great honour. In order to arrive at this result, 
he proposed to divide and to combine the diverse parts of letters, 
and groups of letters, so that, by means of an inclined mould, the 
points where these letters or parts of letters were joined, were 
not seen. 

His father, Ambrose Didot, who invented the system of typo- 
graphical punctuation, left his son a fine inheritance of glory, 
and he improved upon it much. It was from types cast by him 
that Pierre Didot, his brother and his rival, printed a magnifi- 


cent Racine, pronounced by an — s “the finest typogra- 
12* 


138 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


phical monument of all places and all ages.’ He also did much 
towards the improvement of maps. 

Although devoted to his art, Firmin Didot found time for 
literary occupations: as he said of himself, 


“ Sometimes I serve Vulcan, sometimes the nine sisters.” 


In his quiet retreat at Mesneil, near Dreux, where his venerated 
remains sleep, this studious man employed his leisure hours in — 
the study of letters. And it may justly be said of him, that his 
compositions ranked as high as did his various improvements in 
printing. The opinion of an enlightened public decreed him a 
place in the Academie Francaise. But it is well known that 
merit alone will never open the doors of this academical Sanhe- 
drim. Well were it, if more of its members possessed claims as 
solid or as brilliant as those of Firmin Didot. 

His poetical translation of Virgil’s Bucolics, of the Idyls of 
Theocritus, of Bion and of Moschus, that of Tyrteus, and of 
some of Anacreon’s poetry, and Sappho’s, betray a profound 
and intimate knowledge of these old poets, and an uncommon 
skill in reproducing their beauties. His tragedy of Hannibal 
is in some parts not unworthy of Corneille; his Inez de Castro 
has superseded that by Lamotte, to which it is very superior, 
both as regards composition and style. It would be easy to ex- 
tend the enumeration, but our work is not devoted to literature. 
We therefore return to the illustrious mechanic, and will show 
Firmin Didot to the reader in that capacity. 

The following is a fragment of a letter, addressed by him 
to Ambroise Firmin Didot, a son of his, then travelling in 
Greece. 

‘“‘T await your return with impatience, for I wish you to take 
part in a work which will tend in one respect to facilitate the 
instruction of youth. For our efforts should not be limited to 
the mere advancement of luxury, but be subservient to general 
utility. I have engraved and cast with care the types of the 
folio editions of Virgil and Horace, printed by Pierre Didot, my 


FIRMIN DIDOT. 139 


brother, and those of the quarto edition of Camoens, which I 
have just printed ;- but I consider myself as having been more 
useful, by giving to the public a collection of logarithmic tables, 
which present now, and always will, as long as they are re- 
printed, an entire freedom from faults; and by increasing the use 
of stereotype editions, which are of a nature to sustain and pro- 
pagate the love of reading ; as well as by printing writing letters 
without any interruption, especially a running hand called 
English, which has been cast and printed in England, but with- 
out success. A process by means of which, modes of handwrit- 
ing can be prepared at a low rate for the children of the poor. 
The execution of maps is a more difficult matter, but I hope to 
succeed in it, and await your return to begin it. 

“J learn with great pleasure that you are desirous of engray- 
ing the oriental characters when you return. Whether this 
will be advantageous in a commercial point of view, is of no 
consequence ; but it will, no doubt, do you honour, and con- 
tribute to improve your taste for the study of languages. It is 
to be hoped that you will avail yourself of the corrections made 
by Francois Ambroise Didot, your grandfather, and Pierre Di- 
dot, your uncle, in their editions of French and Latin authors.” 

This letter needs no commentary; the knowledge, the mo- 
. desty of Firmin Didot, his disinterestedness, and his zeal for his 
art and for the public welfare, are perfectly apparent. 

Another printer obtained a great name for his efforts in favour 
of the stereotype, towards 1802: this was Herhan. His methods 
were different from those of Firmin Didot ; and his stereotype 
editions, although of much value, could not be compared, for 
execution, to those of his skilful rival. 


CHAPTER XXXII. 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 


QD ji yy N IFORMITY of weights, measures, and 
het money, dates its first establishment from 
the period of the French nee olution. 

“Some few measures,” says M. 
Charles Dupin, “ from the frequency and 
= universality of their use, were establish- 

3 S255" ed by the concurrence of public opinion. 
Such were the measures of distances, of extent, of size, weight, 
time, and of venal value, or money.” 

These fundamental measures were fixed under the reign of 
Charlemagne. 

After the death of this monarch, the supreme power falling 
into impotent hands, the empire was harassed by a rebellion, 
and feudal anarchy put unity to flight. Every province under 
the dominion of a great vassal, had its own money; every dis- 
trict, governed by a secondary vassal, had its local measures. 

It may easily be imagined how much the general commerce 
of the kingdom suffered from this state of disorder, which be- 
came worse when monarchical rule regained the ascendency, 
‘and mercantile relations were extended and multiplied within as 
well as without. ; 

Under the reign of Louis XI., the great vassals were van- 
quished, and all ancient France brought under the authority of 
one throne; and the States-general, convoked a few years after- 
wards, undertook a reformation in weights and coins, and, under 
their auspices, a uniform and regular system spread through all 
parts of France. 


But, unfortunately, such was the want of balance in the 
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WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 141 


higher powers, that the decrees of this assembly were forgotten 
as soon as received by the court. 

In 1789, the States-general, become a constituent assembly, 
went beyond the mere utterance of vain complaints upon the 
important subject of measures and coins. They consulted the 
Academy of Sciences, who twice replied to the appeal through 
its most illustriaus members: such as Borda, Condorcet, La- 
grange, Laplace, Lavoisier, Monge, &c. 

They entertained just views concerning the alloy, and the 
true standard of money, and established the necessity of a uni- 
form subdivision in all species of measures, according to the 
decimal progression of arithmetic; and, aspiring to the highest 
degree of public utility attainable by a system of measures, en- 
deavoured to procure a basis in the invariable elements of na- 
ture; one which could be measured with itself, with a close ap- 
proximation, and continue unchangeable through all ages. 

After much hesitation, the circumference of a terrestrial meri- 
dian was fixed upon as this basis; and, in accordance with a 
decree of the National Assembly, operations were begun in de- 
fiance of all obstacles arising from the spirit of the age, or the 
ignorance of the people. 

The following anecdote will give an idea of the force of pre- 
judice at that time :— 

The astronomer Mechain, one of those intrusted with mea- 
suring the meridian, was passing through Essone, a few leagues 
from Paris, when the municipal authority arrested him, under 
the strange idea that his instruments were so many secret agents 
of counter-revolution; and it was with the greatest difficulty 
that he obtained his liberty, and repaired to the southern part 
of the arc to be measured. 

Shortly afterwards, a barbarism of the most odious nature re- 
established itself in France. The Academy of Sciences, and 
all other literary institutions were suppressed. Schools of all 
kinds were abolished in town and country ; and the rising gene- 
ration bid fair to become one of savages. 


142 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


This deplorable condition could not be of long duration. The 
Convention endeavoured to remedy the disorder. After the 
death of Robespierre, restorative measures were attempted. A 
central school of public works was founded in Paris; encourage- 
ment afforded to artists and men of letters; normal establishments 
for forming professors and primary schools, created throughout 
all France. It was then that the above-mentioned new system 
of weights and measures made a part of public instruction, and 
spread slowly to the commercial relations. The Institute of 
France replaced the old academies, and the most illustrious men 
of the age became members. 

Other useful establishments arose during this stormy epoch, 
among which may be mentioned the Conservatory of Arts and 
Trades. 





CHAPTER XXXIII. 


THE CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES, 


Dice N 1775, the celebrated Vaucanson laid the 
) Fee" corner-stone of this artistical and scientific mu- 
} seum. At his death, he bequeathed his col- 
4é lection of machines, at the Hétel de Mor- 
RY * tagne, to the king. But it was not until the 
CE SEY veN last century, when this establishment was re- 
moved to the old abbey of Saint Martin, that the Conservatory 
of Arts and Trades was regularly organized. 

It is destined for the reception of models, in miniature or 
otherwise, of plans, designs, machines, utensils, instruments, &c., 
used in agriculture, in manufactories, &. The object of col- 
lecting these in’ one place is to make them subservient to the 
further development of the arts. 

The Conservatory of Arts and Trades was not always what 
it now is. At first it consisted merely of a few machines or 
models, picked up here and there. But the disorders of the 
Revolution transferred to this establishment the collection made 
by the Royal Academy of Sciences, and enriched it besides with 
spoils from private collections, placed at the disposal of the go- 
vernment by the odious law of confiscation. Other countries 
have also contributed to enlarge and embellish this exhibition, 
where may be seen the cabinet of the natural philosopher, 
Charles, the first in Europe, and also various models of inven- 
tions which have gained a patent ; but these are not exposed to 
the public gaze until the expiration of the patent-right. 

The ancient and time-honoured abbey of Saint Martin has un- 
dergone many changes since it was first founded in the eleventh 
century. The tower containing the great bells, which’so loudly 


called believers to the services of the church, is no more. It 
(143) 










453 
a 


144 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


has disappeared with the great gate of the architecture of Henry 
the First’s age. “Time has destroyed them both; and in the 
eighteenth century the church was repaired, and ornamented by 
a new facade. ‘The Revolution metamorphosed it into an exhi- 
bition of machines. | 

Let us take a hasty glance at the rooms or galleries of the 
Conservatory of Arts and Trades, some of which are on the 
ground-floor, others above. 

The first room, which was formerly a pals of the charch, 
contains agricultural instruments, hand-mills, the vehicle which 
was used for the transportation, from Marly to Paris, of the fine 
marble horses which ornament the entrance to the Champs Ely 
sées, and many other machines. 

Another is filled with models and machines used in hydraulics 
and agriculture; pruning-knives, pickaxes, and other instru- 
ments, all sorts of water and wind-mills, pumps, and cooking 
apparatus. 

A third room contains machines for carding, weaving and 
winding ; another for dividing skins according to their thickness, 
&c. Farther on are exhibited coiners’ stamps, flatters, machines 
for making weavers’ warps, an improvement which is owing to 
Vaucanson, and machines for making screws. 

The large apartments up-stairs contain models of all species. 
of machines; such as reels, stocking-looms, locks, models of 
machines in which fire is used, and of ships, and the miniature 
representations of the work-shops of various mechanics; such 
as the locksmith, the carpenter, the potter, &c., executed by the 
directions of Madame de Genlis, for the instruction of the princes 
of the Orleans family. The best among this collection is, with- 
out exception, the turning-lathe of the unfortunate Louis XVI. ; 
than which it is impossible to imagine.a better constructed ma- 
chine. 
We must pass over the library connected with this establish- 
ment, which is open on Sunday and Thursday for the use of 
the labouring classes, and contains the rarest foreign and national 


THE CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 145 


works on the subject of the mechanie arts. The importance 
and the utility of this establishment are annually increasing, and 
great ameliorations are successively introduced, of which we will 
point out a few before completing the statistical SUMNALY of the 
Conservatory of Arts and ‘Trades. 

This conservatory remained long in a state Vir beneath its 
original destination, receiving no additions, and opening the libra- 
ry only to those provided with a special permission from the 
director. The descriptions of many of the machines were un- 
_ intelligible, and but one elementary school of drawing and arith- 
metic, for those past the age of childhood, was attached to it. 
This order of things has given place to one much better, in 
many respects. The old and useless articles have been sub- 
stituted by machines and apparatus of modern date and appli- 
cation, and on a much more enlarged scale. ‘The hbrary, as we 
have said before, is open two days in the week. The little 
school has increased so that its plan of instruction embraces, in 
addition to arithmetic and the elements of drawing, the first 
principles of geometry, descriptive geometry, with its applica- 
tion to timber-work, stone-cutting, and the drawing of machines, 
ornaments, and diagrams. 

This establishment is the habitual rendezvous of artisans de- 
sirous of instruction, either in the theory or the practice of their 
trades; and many learned professors, sincere friends to the popu- 
lar arts, and to those who cultivate them, here devote themselves 
to mechanics, chemistry as applied to the arts, physics, and the 
study of machinery. Among these we must mention M. le 
Baron Charles Dupin, and M. Blanqué, the elder, both distin- 
guished by their zeal for the improvement of the working classes, 
and who understand the enviable art of captivating their audi- 
ence. But we are in advance of our subject. Let us return to 
complete our sketch of the great works carried on during the 
republican period. 

13 



























































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CHAPTER XXXIV. 


IRON BRIDGES. 


pet RON bridges, when introduced into France, proved to 
be of great importance, as this metal, possessing much 
more durability than timber, was more advantageous 
for the arches and parapets. 

The merit of this innovation belongs to England. 

: « The first suspension bridge was thrown over the War- 
mouth river, in 1793: nevertheless, the invention is a French 
one; for it is said that a painter at Lyons, in the last century, 
conceived the idea of a suspension bridge two hundred and 
thirty-four feet long, and eighteen feet six inches broad. It 
was to have but one arch, and to take the place of the Saint 
Vincent Bridge, now existing at Lyons; but the plan was never 
put into practice. Another project of the same nature, presented, 
in 1783, to Louis X VI., by M. Vincent de Montpetit, met with 
the same fate. 

But the example of the English was soon followed in France. — 
In 1799, the engineer Brullé, undertook the construction of the 
Austerlitz Bridge, over the Seine, at Paris. 





(146) 


BRIDGES AND CANALS. 447 


It was some years before this bridge was finished, under the 
direction of M. Lamandé, causeway and bridge inspector. It 
is composed of three arches, each thirty-two metres fifty centi- 
metres span. The vaults are composed of cast iron, fastened 
together with platbands of hammered iron, and it will bear the 
heaviest vehicles. - 

' At the same time, public attention was directed to canals; and 
those of Saint Quentin, Midi, Carcassone, Toulouse and Bur- 
gundy, and that connecting the Rhine with the Rhone, the Es- 
caut with the Meuse, and the Meuse with the Rhine, were un- 
dertaken with vigour. 

The Ourcq canal particularly deserves mention. Its con- 
struction was first proposed by Leonardo da Vinci, during his 
sojourn at the court of Francis I., and it was begun in part under 
Louis XIII., but not completed till long after. 

The length of this canal is twenty-four leagues, its slope 
thirty-one fathoms. It is dug in the earth, without embank- 
ments, sluices, or locks. It receives the waters of the Beuv- 
ronne, the Therouanne, the Collinance, the Gergonne, and the 
Oureq, and reaches the Villette basin in twenty-four ‘hours, 
eighty-three feet above the lowest waters of the Seine; a volume 
of water containing 672,000 hogsheads. It was constructed 
under the direction of M. Girard, head canal and causeway en- 
gineer. ‘This is a model of navigation on a small scale, well 
applied to useful purposes,” says M. Ferry; “but its plan 
would not be equally beneficial under less favourable circum- 
stances, or in places where the influence of royal authority could 
not be procured, and where, in consequence, difficulties, moral 
and physical, would arise to impede the construction of the 
work, and where the original expense would be greater than the 
permanent advantages.” 

The history of the Ourcq canal is an instructive one, especially 
when we compare the facts to be gathered from it, with those 
attendant upon the construction of the New York canal, which 
is more than three hundred miles long. 


148. ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


The basin of La Villette, which receives the Ourcq canal on 
the north, was completed during the reign of Napoleon. Des- 
tined for a port to the canal and a reservoir to Paris, and giving 
to the Seine an intermediary navigation, by means of the Saint 
Martin and Saint Denis canals, this basin is an important one, as 
respects utility and ornament. Its form is a parallelogram, sur- 
rounded by masonry. ‘Trees are planted on the banks, and in 
fine weather boating excursions are very frequent on this fine 
sheet of water, which is safe and convenient for amateur navi- 
gation. During the winter it forms an excellent skating ground; 
and is at all seasons the centre of an active commerce with 
Rouen and Havre, as well as with the departments of the north- 
west. 


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CHAPTER XXXV. 


INFLUENCE OF CHAPTAL UPON THE ARTS. 






we HAPTAL, an illustrious man of 
| Pe < learning, a statesman, and at the 
Seen. same time a manufacturer, took an 

=" active part, not only in the scientific 
discoveries which distinguished the latter 
years of the republic, but also in the rapid 
progress of various branches of labour at 
that epoch. 

A chemist from his earliest youth, he cultivated his favourite 
science with ardour, consecrating to it all his leisure hours; 


he spoke of it with an enthusiasm which was insensibly commu- 
13 * (149) 


2 oa 


150 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


nicated to his hearers—with a lucidity and precision which caused 
him involuntarily to impart knowledge. ‘* The more he learned,” 
says one of his biographers, ‘‘the more he felt the littleness of 
his own learning.” Wishing to enjoy greater advantages of 
instruction, he came to Paris, and some time after, a professor- 
ship of chemistry being created in Montpelier, he was appointed 
to it. His lectures attracted a numerous audience, and his 
Elements of Chemistry obtained a great name. 

From that time (before the Revolution), Chaptal directed his 
attention particularly to the application of science; and his ex- 
tensive knowledge procured him an admission into the order of 
Saint Michael, at the age of thirty. An uncle, a celebrated 
physician, called the Curer by the lower classes at Montpelier, 
left him 100,000 crowns, which Chaptal applied to the esta- 
blishment of manufactories of chemical substances, of which 
France had at that time great need. 

At the time of the revolutionary crisis, Chaptal wished to 
share the sufferings and perils of his country; although Spain, 
the kingdom of Naples, and the United States of America, en- 
treated him to follow the universal. example of emigration, and 
offered him each an asylum. Washington pressed him with 
generous cordiality, the Queen of Naples wrote to him with:her 
own hand, and the Spanish government proposed to defray the 
expenses of establishing new moersotires: Chaptal declined 
all offers. 

Called to Paris in 1793, by the Committe of Public Safety, 
he became the fellow-labourer of Berthollet, Monge, and Guy- 
ton de Morveau, and, together with this eminent body of men, 
contributed to deliver France from the dangers surrounding her. 
Paris, henceforward became the scene of Chaptal’s labours; he 
resided there from 1789, and continued to found manufactories 
of chemical substances in the neighbourhood of the capital. 

Chaptal soon ‘appeared under a new aspect. Francois de 
Neufchateau, an excellent minister, and one who deserved to 
live in a more propitious age, proposed to celebrate the sixth 


MECHANICS’ FAIR: 151 


anniversary of the Revolution, by an appeal to French industry. 
This was the first exhibition, properly so called, of French 
manufactures. But, as the whole affair was hastily got up, only 
one hundred and ten mechanics appeared at the rendezvous, all 
of whom were from the immediate neighbourhood, or from the 
department of the Seine, so that the exhibition was a poor one 
in every respect. It had, nevertheless, the advantage of creating 
a spirit of emulation, and pointing the way to farther improve- 
ments. 

The following is an account of it, given by the judicious re- 
porter of the exhibition of 1834, in his introduction. . 

The exhibition of the year 6, or 1798, deserves a particular 
mention, both in regard to its products and its deficiencies. 
- Covered stalls were erected for the reception of manufactured 
articles, and citizens were invited to come and examine. 

There was no silk to be seen; but cotton spinning attracted 
much attention. M. Denys de Luot (Seine et Oise) exhibited 
spun cotton, from the coarsest kind up to number one hundred 
and ten. This mechanic was one of the twelve who took the 
first rank. 

The effect of the Revolution is revealed by the simple 
fact, that instead of aristocratic satins, laces, and brocades, the 
article which principally attracted public attention was that 
which once formed the cap of the lower classes, namely, cot- 
ton made with threads prepared at |’Epine, near Arpagon, and 
cotton velvet such as was then made at Amiens. 

The judges of this meeting were well suited to the inaugu- 
ration of French industry. They chose Chaptal for their 
reporter. 

A new Revolution in France, prepared one in the mechanic 
arts also. The: 1Sth of Brumaire, in the year 8, shone like an 
aurora over France. The Directory was abolished. The 
temporary consulate began, and the period of the empire was 
approaching. 

In exchange for liberty, or let us rather say, for anarchy, the 


, 152 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


genius of the age established order within, and victory without, 
and called into action all the talent of the country, making it 
subservient to the glory of France. Chaptal was intrusted with 
the prosperity of the interior, and never was a better choice 
made. 

The services rendered to France by Chaptal, during a short 
ministry of three years, in respect to the mechanic arts, agricul- 
ture, manufactures, and commerce, are beyond computation, and 
offered a decisive proof of what can be effected by the rare union 
of scientific talent and ministerial capacity. 

France conquered all continental Europe: but this was not 
all. An insular nation obtains a mastery over the ocean ; through 
its commerce and productive arts it must struggle against ad- 
versity by the aid of its mechanical industry. This was the 
problem given by the first consul to his enlightened minister for 
solution. 

Another appeal was made to French manufacturers, in the 
middle of the year 9; and towards the end of this year, a second 
exhibition took place in the Louvre, where preparations had 
been made on a very handsome scale. 

Previous to the revolution, as well as subsequently, the fmest 
woollens were manufactured from foreign fleece. After the 
year 9, French industry, under Chaptal’s influence, succeeded 
in fabricating cloths of great beauty of texture, woven from the 
wool of Spanish sheep naturalized in Franee, and from French 
wool improved by a mixture with the merinos. One entire 
compartment in the Louyre was devoted to this branch of in- 
dustry, giving the Parisians ocular demonstration that native 
wool is equal to that of Spain. 

Chaptal’s efforts did not end here. Upon his recommenda- 
tion, the English mechanician, Douglass, left his own eountry, 
and established himself at Paris, where, in the space of two 
years, he furnished the sixteen departments with more than 
three hundred and forty machines for spinning and weavirg 
wool; and in the year 10 (1802), thanks to the encouragement 


THIRD MECHANICS’ FATR: 153 


afforded by the illustrious Chaptal, a third exhibition was held, 
showing the rapid progress of our manufactures, and where ap- 
peared beautiful stuffs, destined for the Levant; fine manufac- 
tures from Lyons; muslins embroidered in gold and silver, in a 
style equal to that of the finest oriental embroidery ; silks and 
satins of great width, having both sides alike ; and silks inter- 
woven with gold and silver in exact imitation of needlework ; 
as well as silk velvet of shaded scarlet, a colour never pre- 
viously obtained on this material. 

“Tt is repeated with an affectation of contempt for France,’ 
says M. Charles Dupin, “ that the only article deemed worthy 
of admiration by Fox at the exhibition of the year X, was a 
small common knife for two sous. Fox should have reserved 
his admiration for the Castres cloth, the price of which varied 
from one to eighteen francs a yard, thus placing it within the 
reach of the middle and poorer classes. 

** But we should take no heed of a sarcasm evidently inspired 
by national jealousy. Ambitious England, in spite of all paci- 
fic treaties, the eternal enemy of France, beheld, in our marvel- 
lous improvements, a blow aimed at her mechanical supremacy ; 
perhaps she felt a presentiment of the continental blockade, and 
attempted a sort of anticipatory revenge, by showing a disdain 
too evidently affected, a bitterness too unjust to wound. 

* Our expedition to Egypt, which brought us back so few po- 
litical laurels, was more productive with respect to the arts and 
sciences.” 

Those of. our readers who were born at the end of the last 
century, will remember that strange troop which spread over 
France, and filled the army upon its return. I can still fancy 
I see that fine company of Mamelukes, in their picturesque and 
imposing costumes ; their majestic turbans, glittering vests and 
sabres, pistols, and poniards. They were a fine and bold race 
of men, well worthy to march side by side with the French 
regiments, where they shone, a glorious trophy of Napoleon’s 
foreign exploits. 


3 


154 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Close upon the heels of this swarthy troop, followed a new 
branch of industry, which may be looked upon as a conquest, 
and which met with great encouragement at the exhibition of 
1802. I speak of the imitation of cachemire shawls, begun 
with Spanish wool, by the Terneaux family and their associates, 
Jobert Lucas and Madame Recicourt. _ Decrétot fabricated this 
article from French wool grown at Vigogne. 

During the three years of his ministry, which were so well 
spent, and so much to the honour of France, Chaptal restored 
to its former condition the Gobelin establishment, which bad 
declined during the Revolution. Among the numerous servives 
he rendered to France, we must not omit many improvements 
in the art of making wine. He pointed out means of amelio- 
rating its qualities; and proved that several demikilograms of 
sugar, white or brown, or saccharine matter in any form, ex 
tracted from fecula, will, without any noxious effects, produce a 
material change for the better in a hectolitre of wine, which, 
without this corrective, would have been sour and flat. So 
does science correct the imperfections of nature. 

Twelve or fifteen years of so enlightened and intelligent a 

ministry as that of Chaptal, would have sufficed.to double the 
resources of France. Few ministers deserve equal praise. 
_ What immense improvements in the arts and in commerce 
since 1789! What astonishing inventions! What numerous 
changes have taken place during that period of innovation! 
What numbers of illustrious names have passed in rapid review! 
Every science, every one of the mechanical arts has its leader ; 
and of these, the crowd is so great that only those who have 
pressed forward into the first ranks can be enumerated ; indeed, 
after any brilliant action, which does honour to the valour of a 
whole regiment, it is enough to inscribe in the bulletins the’ 
names of those who led them on to battle. 

In less than fifteen years, science, and most of the arts 
and trades improved and enlightened by it, have become the 
subjects of prodigies of advancement, which, in former ages, 


THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 155 


would have been considered as beyond the limits of possibility, 
and which will, in all nations, obtain the homage of posterity. 

In less than fifty years also, has France undergone many 
and bloody trials; the precursors of.a freedom which, when still 
in its infancy, appeared ready to die from repletion. We have 
already made mention of the situation of the country at that 
fatal epoch. Banishments, massacres, scenes of disorder abound- 
ed on all sides, and, to borrow the energetic expression of a 
modern philosopher, “ the hollow cracking of the vast social 
edifice was heard on all sides as it tottered and fell. Ruins 
fell in a sea of blood, which, in its turn, inundated the ruins.” 
What a series of horrible scenes, the memory of which all wish 
to leave in obscurity! What terror invested the workmen of 
the Revolution, who, boldly looking upon society as a block of 
marble, endeavoured to hew out the statue, partly revealed to 
‘hem by a distorted imagination! The ancient monarchy, with 
dl its privileges clinging around it, was overturned, and suc- 
seeded by anarchy, with its disastrous consequences. In the 
place of a king, whose only fault was his excessive goodness, 
-and who was assassinated as a tyrant, there arose hundreds of 
bloodthirsty tyrants, who reigned by aid of the guillotine over 
a terrified and fanatic people. : 

** All Jaws were abolished,” says M. Ballanche, “and the 
people hoped to institute new ones. They spoke of creating 
society, as if society had never existed. Experience, tradition, 
custom, all disappeared before the face of a chaos of human 
reveries, of the conceptions of pride freed from all restraints. 
No such thing was heard of as interrogating the past with wis- 
dom and prudence, and obtaining from it a guide to the future; 
France was herself forgotten; all proportions suddenly destroy- 
ed; the horizon had no known limits, and the lowest and most 
ignorant mechanic talked loudly of organizing the human race.” 

From the bold and firm hands of the National Convention, the 
reins of government fell into those of the weak and powerless 
Directory. The French republic felt that, notwithstanding the 


156 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


success of its army, there was no safety but in energetic union. 
Like Rome of old, in the days of immiment peril, she felt the 
necessity for a dictator—she found an imperious master. But 
that is a great historical fact, which belongs to another epoch. 

_ Here terminates the first period which I indicated in beginning 
my historical sketch of the heroes of the arts, the glories of the 
manufactory and of the work-shop. I have recorded all the 
wonders that have arisen among us, in spite of the horrible in- 
ternal ravages which have threatened to destroy France. Now, 
renewing her energy, as her wounds closed, she is about to offer 
us new leaves culled in the field of arts, although the battle- 
thunder echoes even there. 

A genius whose powers were of the first order ; whose views 
were powerful and extended, and whose will became a law to 
all, took the government of France into his own hands, and 
gave it a new and glorious character, hitherto unknown to it. 
A modern Charlemagne,—he astonished the world by the great- 
ness of his exploits. His noble ambition longed to conquer other 
nations ; not only at the bloody game of battles, but in the paci- 
fic arena of the arts. France beheld him, in the same day, or- 
ganize a victory, establish laws, and found manufactories. Al- 
ready do I behold the eagle, symbol of his high destinies and his 
invincible strength, spread his majestic wings to the horizon, and 
hover, with august pride, over the trophies of war and industry, 
united for the first time. 


¢ 








CHAPTER XXXVI. 


NAPOLEON. 


' aie ez t. THE period which beheld the 


&~ French empire arise from the midst 
‘ of the bloody ruins of the ancient 








| monarchy, presents a phenomenon 
; which seems almost magical, and 
J) which, like all strange events, is 
= of a nature to excite the sympathy 
\ and admiration of the people in a 

Ky) high degree. 
“The empire, with its peculiar 
physiognomy, its colossal size, its ten years, containing more 
than many. centuries, now appears in history like one of those 
granite pyramids which raise their tall majestic heads from 
among the sands of Egypt, indestructible monuments, against 
which the scythe of time but dulls itself! All the universe is 
acquainted with the name of the hero of this memorable epoch, 
a name which, to this day, is in the thoughts of all who occupy 
an elevated political station; a name which will always exercise 
a magic influence under the thatch, as well as in the work-shop; 
for in all future ages, the people will remember with pride the 
exploits of the illustrious captain, who, himself one of the people, 
enchained factions, gave his own laws to vanquished nations, and 
raised his throne upon those of all Europe, causing a new glory 
to spread over France; a glory, with which he associated all the 
brave men, worthy descendants of the ancient Gauls; a glory, 
in some sort of plebeian origin, but noble, pure, and brilliant, and: 
of which, but few families may not lay claim to a part. 

This glory was the patrimony of all, of the poor even more 

14 (157) 


158 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


than the rich, and courage and personal merit were its only re~ 
quisites. This circumstance explains the almost contagious 
action exerted by its memory upon the mass of the people, and 
will also powerfully contribute to perpetuate its remembrance ; 
for in future, the people will never behold any thing more heroic 
than the great battles of the empire, more courageous than the 
warriors and soldiers of the grande armee. 

The extraordinary man who-wasg the soul of this memorable 
epoch, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica. His father was a gen- 
tleman of no rank or fortune. From him he_received the name 
of Bonaparte, and from his godfather and godmother, that of 
Napoleon, two names under which he immortalized himself, first 
as general, afterwards as emperor. 

The name Napoleon, which signifies Lion of the desert, and 
thereby appears symbolical, is an admirable summary of all the 
greatness of the empire. 

An anecdote is related of the childhood of Napoleon Bona- 
parte, which may since have been looked upon as an omen of his 
marvellous after-life. During the early part of his-childhood, 
his sole instructor was one of his great-uncles, an archdeacon 
of Ajaccio, who was remarkably fond of him. One day, at the 
residence of this good man, a beam broke and fell with a loud 
crash. The whole household fled in terror and consternation, 
with the exception of a child who was on the spot, and who, 
far from seeking to avoid the danger, sprang forward, by a 
strange impulse, and extended his little arms to catch and sup- 
port the falling timber. ‘‘ Well done,” exclaimed the old man, 
embracing the little ig tn **T see you are destined to be the 
prop of my house.” 

Not long afterwards, the venerable archdeacon, being on his 
death-bed, said to the young members of the Bonaparte family, 
who were asking his blessing :—<“ It is useless to feel any anx- 
iety concerning the future fate of Napoleon ; he will make it him- 
self. Joseph, you are the eldest of your family, but Napoleon 
is its head, mark my words.” 


NAPOLEON. 159 


Every one knows to what extent this prediction has. been 
verified. At the age of thirty, Napoleon was not only the head 
of his family, but the supreme umpire of Europe. His victories 
in Italy, his adventurous and brilliant expedition into Egypt, 
the glorious treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and of Amiens, 
(1802,) opened to him the road to power. Chosen consul for 
life of the French republic, on the 2d of August, 1802, he 
gained in less than two years, the title of Emperor of the French, 
and constituted himself the founder of a new dynasty, which only 
needed the consecration of the past to be sure of the future. 

I shall not enter into a description of the great events which 
made-up the life of this remarkable man: these details, otherwise 
so interesting, would lead us too far from our subject. But we 
shall be pardoned for pausing an instant before the pedestal of 
the hero who, in modern times, could be, by turns, Cesar and 
Charlemagne. 

“Every thing is hotadtic,? says an eloquent biographer. 
*« Every thing in this illustrious life seems vast and sublime to the 
man who muses upon Napoleon’s course from the island where 
he was born, to the one which afforded him a grave; a bright 
and terrible star which rose from the bosom of the ocean, passed 
from the east to the west, and returned thither to sink forever! 
However, in this instance, it is the true which becomes the 
strange: this extraordinary destiny has been accomplished in 
the midst of us all; his career was a drama in which we have 
all been either actors or spectators. But were either the actors 
or the spectators of these events to attempt a description of 
them, we should fancy it to be an epic poem unfolded before us. 
Bonaparte’s face is imprinted among my childhood’s earliest re- 
collections. I belong to one of the generations which have 
ripened in the sun of his prosperity. In his hour of adversity, 
I have seen him in those fatal marches where he retreated from 
battle to battle, under the combined forces of the whole world. 
And when I have occasion to recall the names of Arcola, Cairo, 
Marengo, Austerlitz, Jena, Friedland, Wagram, and Mojaisk, 


160 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


during the fame of which, our youth passed by, I am on the 
point of entitling my chapters, Songs of the Youth of Napoleon; 
Songs of his Italian Campaign; Songs of the Egyptian War; 
Songs of the Consulship ; Songs of the Empire, up to its summit 
of power, and thence downward to its decline; Songs of the Island 
of Elba 3 and, finally, of the one hundred days of Saint Helena! 
It is the Iliad of the modern glories ; an Odyssey comprising all 
nations and all shores. But what fiction could compare with 
such facts? They bear upon them the stamp of greatness so 
evidently, that admiration is aroused without any aid from the 
imagination ; nor does our proximity interfere with the sublimity 
of the impression made. Napoleon had the rare good fortune to 
appear a Colossus even in the eyes of his cotemporaries. Such has 
he remained even to his most severe judges, his harshest critics. 

A captain, a conqueror, a legislator, Napoleon added to these 
high and rarely united qualities, the difficult art of administering 
the government of a vast empire. He was not forgetful, in the 
splendour of his victories, of the industry of France; his genius 
knew how to direct, and followed with a true pride the vital 
developements of manufactures and the arts. ‘The two exhibi- 
tions which he instituted during his consulship, one in 1802, and 
the other in 1803, betrayed from the beginning his solicitude for 
the commercial prosperity of France. 

Shortly afterwards, when he placed upon his head the impe- 
rial crown, he wished for the commercial, as well as political 
interest, to give his coronation a solemnity suited to his sovereign 
power, and to the resources of the country. 

This imposing ceremony, in which, to the great astonishment 
of the public, the illustrious Pius VII. took a part, gave a 
vigorous impulse to our manufactures. It offered the grand 
and magnificent sight of a court formed as if by enchantment. 
The new emperor, struck with the idea that a great and rich 
people require arts which are adapted to wealth, in order to 
give the means of existence to a large part of the- population, 
supported otherwise by agriculture alone, was desirous that all 





CORONATION OF NAPOLEON. “161 


the workmen of all classes should unite to revive the beautiful 
arts which had formerly flourished at Lyons, at Tours, and at 
Avignon. Thence have issued so many rich and variegated 
costumes, beautiful productions of taste and elegance, all per- 
fectly appropriate to the different ranks of the new hierarchial 
government, all attesting the renovation and improvement of 
the arts, and heightening the pomp of the solemn coronation. 
All this had been previously arranged and decided upon, after 
mature reflection, by the supreme chief of the state. In order 
to achieve a conquest over all minds and all hearts, it was im- 
portant to fascinate the multitude by an imposing scene, which 
from beginning to end wou'd forcibly exhibit the splendour and 
power of the imperial throne. 

The 2d of December, 1804, occupies an 1 ay place in 
the annals of the French revolution. 

Those of our contemporaries who have lived half a century, 
can recollect the spontaneous enthusiasm with which the people 
greeted the brilliant dawn of the new reign. What excitement! 
what joy! in all classes interested in the re-establishment of 
order! It was in fact a popular festival. Mechanics, especially 
all those so truly important to the progress of manufactures, 
exhibited the liveliest transports. One great reason of all this 
was, that, among the high dignitaries of the court organized on ° 
the field of battle, they were able to recognise many men, like 
themselves of humble origin—many who, brought up in the 
workshop, were, so to speak, their former companions. __ 

Thus, the mechanic of the suburbs and the plebeian recalled 
with honest pride the humble departure of each of those great 
persons, now clothed in gold and embroidery, ornamented with 
ribands and orders, military and civil insignia, and wearing with 
such grace the court cloak, and the plumed hat, as well as the 
equally novel titles of prince, count, and duke, titles revived 
from the old monarchy, and which were in some degree the 
certificates of their fame. The heroes composing the young 
imperial nobility, early accustomed to the heat of the cannon 

14 * 


162 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


and the noise of grape, had for the most part quitted the dress 
of a mechanic for that of a soldier, and, as they rapidly rose to 
distinction, proved themselves the offspring of their own actions. 

There was Eugene Beauharnais, the Bayard of our day, who 
gave up the apprentice’s apron, and claimed his father’s sword 
after the death of the latter upon the revolutionary scaffold. 
Napoleon, touched with his filial affection} adopted this young 
man as his son, who was soon to be viceroy of Italy. 

There was Joachim Murat, the heroic swordsman, son of an 
innkeeper of La Bastide, near Cahors, who afterwards became 
marshal of the empire, prince, high admiral, grand duke of 
Berg, and brother-in-law to the emperor, and who obtained, un- 
fortunately for himself and France, a seat upon the throne of 
Naples. 

There was Augereau, the former master-at-arms, son of a 
fruit-woman of the Faubourg Saint Marceau, justly celebrated 
as one of our most brilliant military characters. The glorious 
part which he took at Lodi, at Castiglione, and at the passage 
of the bridge of Arcola, placed him in the highest rank among 
the generals of the republic, and raised him to the high offices 
of Marshal of the Empire, and Duke of Castiglione. 

There was Michel Ney,—he who, sprung from an obscure 
family of Sarrelouis, found, as the story is, a Marshal’s staff in 
his cartouche-box. Already Duke of Elchingen, he won, at a 
later period, not only the title of Prince of Moscow, but one 
still more honourable,—one given him by Napoleon himself: 
namely, that of the bravest of the brave, a name by which he 
will always be distinguished in history. 

In this ceremony of the coronation appeared, among other 
military personages, the Marshal, Prince of Porto Carro, twen- 
ty years before a private soldier in a regiment of infantry, now 
King of Sweden and Norway, under the name of Charles John 
the Fourteenth. He was born of a plebeian family of Bearn, 
and became illustrious as Bernadotte. _ 

Finally, to terminate this brilliant enumeration, which could 


THE DUKE OF MONTEBELLO. 163 


easily be extended, let us conclude with the mention of the cele- 
brated Marshal Lannes, Duke of Montebello, who is more inti- 
mately connected with our nation. 

Son of an hostler, and a native of Lectoure, Lannes passed 
the first years of his youth in an apprenticeship to a dyer of 
Auch. From this station his next step was to the highest dig- 
nities of the empire. 

Two incidents are related which are equally honourable to 
his head and his heart. Already at the summit of military 
honour, and about to take the command of a division of the army 
in Spain, he was obliged to pass through his native province. 
Many, through vanity, would have preferred taking another 
route, in order to avoid meeting old acquaintances, whose pre- 
sence might be troublesome; or else, actuated by a still more 
silly and not less uncommon vanity, might not have wished to 
appear among them otherwise than surrounded by all the im- 
posing dignities of a new and elevated station, an ostentation 
which generally fails in its object. The Marshal, Duke of 
Montebello, showed himself truly worthy of his elevation by 
pursuing an entirely opposite course of conduct, and left in Auch 
a remembrance never to be effaced from the minds of the people. 

Arrived at the gates of the city, he chanced to see a labourer 
employed in mending the road, and recognised in him a former 
playfellow. He stopped his carriage, got out, and going up to 
the man, said, in the patois of the place, 

“Well! comrade, don’t you think fighting with the Austrians 
is a better business than the one you are at? Don’t you know 
me ?—look close !—not yet ?—shake hands, come!’’ 

And so saying, he, the Marshal of France, the Duke of Monte- 
bello, the distinguished officer, the friend of Napoleon, affection- 
ately pressed the callous hand of the labourer, who stared in 
astonishment. 

“ Come!’ said the marshal, “it seems to me you have not 
risen in the world; perhaps you do not like the smell of gun- 









Soe tops wee he dyer Dae mer m= rho 
Gotten, Joondod. hate ake ai Depart 
ne : 
cuced. eRe are, et et ae 
many robes of ceremony, and fearmg he m 
to pete; bot Lamnes, drawme bes arm wi 
cl this and ing is forward othe magistrate whe bad 
jest spoken -— + 

« Sor Peefect, I acespl withiplecsme the dencr yeni 
Ret ades cogent af Sagi eee 
you here behold” > 

List aa'edd, in conchaling <ierectibil; Gat Giniagethaiilie 
eee | 
ronrs chonbd asin Se ienity of catatonia 
descend to fmaltzr intereoarse with these who zre far beneath — 
generous mind, is mot suck comdescension the true self-exaltation? — 

This noble disposition made Lannes beloved by the whole 
emmy, from the common soldser up to the emperor. The uni- 
dezth-wound at the battle of Essiine, was a proof of ths. Na- 
poleos hamelf hastened to the Gsmal hand-terrow on Zi 
was extended the mutilated form of his illustrious leatenant; be 
threw hamself =pon the bosom of has friend, who had fommted 
from loss of blood. ~Laames,” cried be, “ Lanmes, look up; 

























is your fimend! ¢ = the emperor .— at = Boooperte,—yor 
Napoleon; and ther distress wes motmel. “In 2 few boos.” 
saad Lannes, m a dyme wosce, ~ you will heve lost the m= who 
loved you most.” 

This man, who was not ashamed of having been a dyer’s > 
prentice, had always the courage to speek the truth, without re- 
servation, tp Napoleon. He was the worthy Hepbesoom of ths 
second Alewander, and well deserved the bomours decreed to Imm 
at the Pantheon on the 6th of July, 1810. 

I bad already observed thet the ceremony of the coronetien 
had served to bang to heht many new resoerces of French @- 
dustry. The formation of the new comt opened a extensive 
tsarket for manefactared articles. 

The extuiafens whach heve beew spokes of im the pero pre 
ceding this had been the cause of great Eeprovemenits @ Teriors 
mechameal arts. The enhebtened edumtretion of Chepte] bad 
coatnibated im mo shehi degree to prepare and te secure these 
fortunate resalts; and, to say the treth, the shilfe] mmister of 


166 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


the interior had the good fortune to find an able coadjutor i m 
the emperor, 

This opinion, which, however, has never been contested, is 
clearly manifested in the following passage from the Baron 
Charles Dupin. ‘ What a glorious epoch was that,” says the 
learned academician, ‘ when the very great man who preferred 
the title of member of the Institute to that of general, visited, 
in company with his illustrious friends, Berthollet the chemist, 
Monge the geometrician, and the minister Chaptal, the work- 
shops and the manufactories of Paris, Rouen, Lyons, Milan, 
Bruxelles, Liege, and Aix la Chapelle; urged everywhere the 
necessity for improvement ; searched with his eagle eye into the 
mysteries of mechanical ingenuity ; roused and stimulated the 
indolent with his memorable and cutting language ; and gave to 
his praise the charm of professional, of universal renown! Did 
he meet in his course with a man of talent, a Terneaux, a mas- 
ter-builder of uncommon genius, he disengaged the cross of 
honour from his own breast to place it upon that of the artisan 
with his own hand, in the presence of all the apprentices and 
workmen.” 

In this manner this great man encouraged the sciences, the 
arts, and the people. Happy for him, if his ambition had not 
carried him far from that people and its interests, to seek in end- 
less wars the grave of his fortune and his dictatorship. 

The first years of the empire, the brilliant continuation of the 
consulship, were fortunate years for the commerce and manufac- 
tures of our capital and our provinces. Although the war might 
oblige France to maintain numerous armies, yet, as it did not fail 
to crown all Napoleon’s enterprises with success, and daily to 
increase his power, and the universal confidence in his genius 
and his good fortune, a prodigious activity became remarkable 
in our manufacturing towns, and in our work-shops generally. 

In every direction, success and prosperity crowned) this in- 
dustry. Asif by enchantment, the number of our cloth manu- 
factories began to increase, together with that of the different 





ENCOURAGEMENT OF THE ARTS. 167 


rane 


ma | 


{ are Fs at 





Napoleon and Terneaux, 


trades, and the workmen employed in them. Wealth and ease 
having become more diffused and more universal, the demand 
for woollen stuffs, especially those of the finer sort, increased. 
Calicoes were also multiplied, but did not interfere with the use 
of native hemp and flax. Ingenious machinery carried cotton 
spinning to a great degree of perfection. Government had of- 
fered a prize of a million of francs to the inventor of a mechanism 
suitable for advancing flax-spinning in an equal manner, and 
thereby diminish the expense of the hand-labour requisite for 
working up the raw material. 

Here, then, was one of the happy consequences of order, re- 
established first in the different departments of the empire, and 
afterwards in the immense number of minds which had been so 
long unsettled by political theories, more or less revolutionary. 
The erection of the imperial throne seemed indefinitely to post- 
pone the hopes of faction. Whilst our brave soldiers abroad, 
under their hitherto invincible commander, were gaining victo- 
ries, taking cities, subjugating kingdoms, making and unmaking 
kings, our workmen at home were making the anvil resound, 


168 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


polishing iron and steel, fashioning wood, weaving flax and 
hemp, fabricating stuffs of woollen and silk, and inventing new 
and labour-saving machines, some more ingenious and compli- 
cated, others more expeditious and economical. Every artisan had 
returned to his former state of mind, one far better for the in- 
terests of himself and society at large, than the wild, fanatical 
spirit for a time let loose upon all France. There were no more 
meetings of the people, no more of those clubs open to the ad- 
vantage of the worst passions, and where intrigue of the lowest 
stamp, idleness and blind sedition played so calamitous and igno- 
ble a part. The daily papers began to be examined for the 
official accounts of victories. The Brutuses of the suburbs, 
Sczvolas of the ale-houses, and the Catilines of the drinking- 
clubs, changed the style of their conversation ; for the great and 
glorious name of Napoleon was in every mouth. Such changes 
came as if by enchantment. Women also, following the general 
example, returned of their own accord to their proper employ- 
ments, their domestic duties, and the mild and feminine habits 
which they had done ill to part with. They began to worship 
the hero who presided over the destinies of the empire, and made 
public their extreme admiration for him on all occasions. No 
fear now of one single Charlotte Corday ; a few years had up- 
rooted all the republican feeling, or rather fanaticism, which had 
armed the interesting heroine of Saint Saturnin with the: knife 
which gave the death-blow to Marat, of execrable memory. 

At length liberty, or rather the odious tyranny which had so 
long usurped her holy name, fatigued with its own ignoble ex- 
cesses, its hideous and bloody orgies, had fallen asleep in the 
bosom of glory; and France, under the powerful hand which 
guided her, had recovered the noble and prosperous attitude of 
a truly sovereign nation, and began justly to regard herself asin 
some degree the metropolis of the whole world, in respect either 
to the power of her arms, or the excellence, good taste, and 
perfection of the productions of her manufacturers. 

The liberal encouragement given to workmen in the useful 


MOSAIC WORK—PIPE CLAY. 169 


arts, and the valuable rewards instituted to excite and maintain 
the emulation and perseverance of inventors, exercised a salutary 
influence upon the various manufactories. 

Under the direction of Napoleon, the beautiful art of mosaic 
work, invented by the Greeks, and since exercised by the 
Italians, took its place as one of the French arts. In order to 
introduce it among us, the emperor sent to Rome for the artist 
Belloni, and intrusted to him the direction of a mosaic establish- 
ment. Strange to say, the skilful Italian instructed young blind 
men in this art. In this establishment they did not make use of 
the small cubes of polished stone, to be seen in some antique 
mosaics, but enamels were employed, such as are found in some 
Gothic mosaics. 

About the same time, a new sort of earthenware, commonly 
known as pipe-clay, was made to undergo great improvements 
in France. This substance, finer than the earthenware produced 
at Sceaux, was introduced into France immediately after the 
peace with America. Hall, an Englishman, was the first who 
manufactured it at his establishment at Montereau. At one of 
the first exhibitions, he received one of the twelve prizes of the 
first class, given to great improvements in the arts; and since 
then, factories of the same kind have been successively established 
at Paris, Choisy, Chanteuil, Creil, and afterwards at Toulouse 
and Larreguemines, some of which have given to the world im- 
provements which we shall mention hereafter, when our subject 
reaches the period which followed the empire. 


15 


CHAPTER XXXVYVII. 


SHAWLS. 


casually, the name of Terneaux, one of 
our greatest and most patriotic manu- 
facturers. 

During the consulship, this industrious 
man rose with difficulty from the mis- 
fortunes occasioned by the ruin of his manufactory, of himself and 
his family ; nevertheless, after 1801, he restored to their former 
high rank the cloths of Sedan, Rheims, and Verviers; and em- 
ployed as many as five thousand labourers in the perfecting of 
the beautiful articles to which his attention was directed. | 

Further, the indefatigable Terneaux, admirably seconded by 
his brother, had acquired a true claim to the national grati- 
tude, by importing the Thibet goats into France, at a great 
expense, thus enabling us to imitate the valuable India shawls, 
and delivering us from a very burdensome tribute, hitherto paid 
to the Asiatic kingdoms. | 

It will be evident that we here refer to the French cashmeres, 
now so common and beautiful. 

“What,” asks a somewhat sarcastic observer, ‘“‘were the 
shawls which, towards the end of the last century, covered the 
shoulders and the breasts of our ladies of rank ?—handkerchiefs 
of plain or printed muslin, silk scarfs, or silk mixed with cotton, 
or gauze with satin borders, or square pieces of woollen stuff of 
coarse texture, plain or ornamented with little bunches of flow- 
ers, the most valuable of which were only worth a louis, and 
which no one would dare to offer at the present day to a servant. 


With such rags our shivering belles covered their shoulders, 
(170) 





= 


WOOLLENS. 171 


when returning from a ball. Such shawls would scarcely pro- 
tect them from the cold, wearing, as they did, thin dresses in 
the Grecian style, with short tight sleeves, without lining, and 
having in use none of the numerous modern comfortable articles 
of clothing. But it was the fashion to be frozen, and never 
warmly clad in public. Furred coats and muffs were forgotten 
and left to the moths; cloaks as yet unknown. The little 
shawl took the place of all these abroad. The wadded silk 
dress was reserved for the boudoir and the fires'de; a few pru- 
dent women clothed themselves with it, when returning home 
at night. 

About that time, the cashmere shawls were only known in 
France by name; and according to the descriptions of travellers, 
the wives of our ambassadors and consuls in the east, who re- 
ceived them sometimes as presents, preserved them as mere ob- 
jects of curiosity. Indeed, these productions of Asiatic industry 
were held in very little repute. It is related that, in 1788, some 
ladies, to whom real cashmere shawls were presented, looked 
upon them with contempt, as in the light of serge, good, at the 
most, for lining dresses; others made dressing-gowns, ironing- 
blankets, hearth-rugs, &c., of them. 

But an entire revolution soon came to pass on this point, in 
consequence, as we have already said, of our celebrated expedi- 
tion into Egypt. Our warriors, upon their return from that 
distant shore, made these shawls better known, and brought them 
into fashion. 

This pacific revolution contributed powerfully to the progress 
of industry, and gave birth to many new manufactories, the 
number of which has since so much increased over all France. 
The exhibition of 1801 displayed the first shawls, the imitations 
of India cashmeres, which were very far from perfection. The 
Vienna shawls being more brilliant, and printed in six or seven 
colours on a striped ground of cotton, excited the emulation of 
the French manufacturers, who soon succeeded in imitating 


them. 
4 


172 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


& 

Finally, the public exhibition of 1806, at the Bourbon palace, 
offered to view a shawl a yard and a quarter square, with a 
border an inch and a half broad, ornamented with a circle of 
roses in the centre, and a scarf of silk and woollen, having a 
white ground, and a border three-quarters of an inch wide, and 
at each end palm figures nine inches high.’ Great efforts were 
now made to bring the spinning of wool to perfection, and the 
French manufacturers did not hesitate to risk a great amount of 
capital in order to improve, tovary and increase the productions 
of a branch of industry which was beginning to be patronized by 
fashion. 

At the head of all-the Bicics of this kind, were those of Ter- 
neaux, who made himself remarkable by the astonishing superi- 
ority of the shawls which have since taken his name. 

It was not, however, until after much trouble and many sa- 
crifices, that Terneaux succeeded in obtaining these brilliant 
results. 

The cashmere shaw] of India, the ornament of the Rey adie! 
the dress of the Brahmin, and which sometimes formed the tur- 
ban of Mongolian or Mahrattan officers, had excited an extra- 
vagant admiration on the part of our French ladies. But the 
secret of its fabrication was unknown; no one knew what was 
the original material of this precious sia It was asked, and 
is yet, whether it was the wool of sheep, or the hair of any par- 
ticular species of goat or camel. This is a question on which 
historians, scholars, travellers, and manufacturers, have never 
agreed. ‘All that relates to the fabrication of the cashmere 
shawls,’ says the above-mentioned author, ‘the mode of spin- 
ning and weaving, the form of the machinery used, the method 
of shading the colours, arranging the design, the flowers and 
palm leaves, as well as the ground on the borders, is still a mys- 
tery, not less impenetrable than that of the original material, and 
which could not be discovered by Berneir, Forster, or Legoux, 
who visited Cashmere, nor by any modern- travellers in India ; 
none of whom, indeed, thought it of much importance, not being 


‘CASHMERE SHAWLS. 1% 


much interested in the subject of manufactures. One thing is 
certain, that the largest and most beautiful shawls, especially the 
long ones, are made by two workmen, and are in two pieces, 
joined together with remarkable skill. The large and elegant 
borders are put on in the same manner. 

The noble ambition of rivalling the perfection of these Serina- 
gor tissues, stimulated Terneaux to make the greatest sacri- 
fices in order to acclimate the Thibet goats in France. This 
goat is a species existing from the frontiers of China to the 
Caspian sea, and bears the valuable hair thought suitable for the 
fabrication of the India shawls. But this speculation did not 
succeed. 

The so-called Thibet goats scarcely afforded wool to the | 
value of thirty sous a year, which was far from making up the 
cost of their maintenance. It became, therefore, expedient to 
abandon this scheme, and to import from Russia the fine wool 
which has contributed to_give such excellence to the fabrication 
of French shawls. 

Since then, the productions of our manufacturers have not only 
almost equalled in delicacy those brought from India, but have 
even surpassed them in elegance and variety of design. Let us 
add, that they are ten or twelve per cent. cheaper than those 
shawls, and that, in this respect, the last exhibitions of arts — 
have been able to convince the most incredulous. 

To complete the praises of Terneaux, we will quote the fol- 
lowing passage from the New Dictionary of Inventions and 
Discoveries, article Merinos, which is itself extracted from the 
Dictionary of Discoveries in France. | 

*‘'Terneaux fabricated the stuffs called merinos, and the genuine 
cashmere shawls, in the manufacture of which, he was unable to 
succeed until after much research into the unknown substance of 
the filaceous material used. Terneaux’s efforts in this sort of 
labour were so fortunate in the end, that he surpassed the India 
fabrics, both in the wearing and the colours.” | 


Terneaux won the gold medal, the highest prize, at six sucs 
15* 


174 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


cessive exhibitions. He effectually encouraged all the manufac- 
turing improvements, and engaged in commerce with the same 
energy which he displayed in his manufactures. There were at 
Cadiz, Leghorn, Naples, and Saint Petersburg, houses established 
by him, branches of his central establishment. His productions 
were superior to those of other European nations, without ex- 
cepting the English. The exportation of these productions has 
increased tenfold since 1814, and, at the present day, exceeds 
in value 10,000,000 francs. In short, Terneaux has enjoyed 
the honour of being the one among the French manufacturers 
who has done the most to increase the national wealth, the re. 
venue of the public treasury, and the well-being of the lower 
classes. 

The following is a short extract from M. Blanqué, senior, 
who fully confirms all that we have said concerning Terneaux’s 
influence upon our manufactures and commerce. Although the 
name of that great builder of manufactories is not mentioned in 
this passage, his eulogium is implicitly contained in it, for it is 
to him that are justly due the immense results signalized in these 
times. 

‘‘It is proper to observe,” says the learned professor of the 
Conservatory of Arts and Trades, “ that the greater part of 
our exportations consists of the great variety of articles of luxury 

and taste, which, standing as they do in the highest rank in the 
vocabulary of arts, do not the less figure among the sources of 
| our wealth. Who, for instance, is ignorant of the high reputa- 
: tion of our shawls, which rival those of India, excelling them in 
: delicacy of tissue, fineness of material, and frequently in stability 
1 of colouring? Less than thirty years ago, this beautiful art 
«scarcely existed, while it now brings France a revenue of more 
} than 25,000,000 francs. Smugglers introduced the first models, 
{but our manufacturers soon bid defiance to these contraband 
\articles. The names of Demirouse, Gaussen, and Hebert, have 
\acquired great celebrity in this line all over Europe; and Eng- 
r 


SHAWLS. 175 


land, so proud of her woven stuffs, is here obliged to acknow- 
ledge the superiority of the French goods, for we consider the 
manufacture of shawls as entirely nationalized in France. Our 
designers have in no small degree contributed to the riches of 
the country, and it is one of the most brilliant conquests made 
by us since the beginning of the nineteenth century.” 





CHAPTER XXXVIII. 


THE SIMPLON AND MONT CENIS. 


ix 


MONG the great public works executed 
\ during the first years of the empire, the 
most astonishing were, without doubt, 
©)7)\ in regard to difficulties vanquished, the 

A roads of Mont Cénis and of the Sim- 
3* plon, which were constructed upon the 
bold plan of the engineer Céard. 





created a necessity for these great and important labours. At 
that time both Mont Cénis and the Simplon were as yet only 
furrowed by the foot-paths worn by the country people. Napo- 
Jeon spoke, and the most magnificent roads that ever existed 
were opened to astonished travellers. 

I will borrow from the Annuatre of the Bureau of Longi- 
tudes, for the year 1809, a few details which will give an idea 
of these admirable roads, where nature and art strike the imagi- 
nation by turns. ’ 

In the passage of Mont Cénis it was necessary, from the 
bridge of Lanslebourg up to the summit near Ramasse, to as- 
cend to a distance of six hundred and ninety-two metres, on a 
horizontal and direct length of two thousand eight hundred and 
fifty-five metres. Six winding slopes have reduced this abrupt 
declivity to a gentle descent, over which carriages of all sizes 
can easily ascend and descend, passing over a space of ten thou- 
sand two hundred and twelve metres. The whole descent on 
the Suze side is one thousand four hundred and fifty metres in 
height, on a horizontal and direct length of seventeen thousand 


1 eight hundred and sixty-six metres; the whole distance tra- 
(176) 


ROAD OVER THE SIMPLON. 177 


versed in the length of these slopes twenty-five thousand six 
hundred and sixty-three metres. The southern side of the 
mountain, although its declivity is not so steep, has presented 


difficulties at least equal to those of the northern. The whole 


road travelled over between Lanslebourg and Suze, which is 
thirty-five thousand eight hundred and sixty-five metres long, 
only exceeds by little more than one-fifth in length, the old road, 
which was only fit for beasts of burden, and was twenty-seven 
thousand nine hundred and fifty-six metres long. An extensive 
hospital has been erected on the table-land of this mountain, 
and inducements have been offered to all those who would take 
up their residence in this vicinity. 

The barbarous condition of the greater part of the former 
road crossing the district of Mont Blanc, which was not only 
inconvenient, but also dangerous in some places, being incon- 
sistent with the magnificent improvements on Mont Cénis, re- 
pairs were made in it whenever it was necessary. The passage 
of the Echelles, as it is called, which hasbeen so much boasted 
of, and which the lightest carriages were unable to cross with- 
out additional horses, was replaced by a subterranean gallery, 
which has removed all difficulties. 

Proceeding from Glitz, on the French side, to cross the Sim- 
plon, one meets with an elevation of one thousand three hun- 
dred and four metres up to the highest point, where it has been 
intended to build a hospital, travelling over a gradual descent of 
twenty-two thousand five hundred metres, the horizontal and 
direct length being ten thousand four hundred and ninety me- 
tres. The village of Simplon, which is situated at the dis- 
tance of nine thousand three hundred metres from the Italian 
side, is lower than that point by five hundred and fifty-two me- 
tres. The works of art, consisting of propped walls, bridges, 
and subterranean galleries, are on a more extensive scale on this 
road than on that of Mont Cénis. 

During the execution of these vast works, worthy to be com- 
pared with the most wonderful monuments of the ancients, a 


a” Eee ee ee 


178 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


military spirit was more and more diffused throughout the nation 
by the reports of our victories. In all the work-shops nothing 
was heard but animated accounts of battles and skirmishes. 
Far from dreading the hour which was to enrol them under the 
banner, the young mechanics considered it a festival to go in 
search of their share of the laurels reserved for the brave; and, 
as if to prepare themselves in advance for warlike habits, as- 
sumed a bold bearing, wore their caps on one ear, and strove to 
exhibit various little soldier-like gestures. ‘ 

When the day of departure arrived, the conscript, at the sum- 
mit of his ambition, and in the words of the popular songs of 
the times, “‘ Impatient to fly to glory,”’ was eager to escape from 
the sorrowful embraces of his family, and, imagining himself to 
_ be already in possession of a uniform, the helmet of a dragoon, 
or the fur cap of a grenadier, took a proud leave of his fellow- 
workmen. They, on their side, failed not to drink to the health 
and prosperity of the future hero. Many of them, particularly 
the younger ones, envied him his lot and his dress; and all, full 
of the warlike enthusiasm which was kept up by the glorious 
news received from the theatre of war, surrounded their brave 
comrade, and escorted him in triumph to the outskirts of the city. 

These farewell scenes were of frequent occurrence, as is well 
known. They displayed, even to the last years of the empire, 
the same warmth, the same patriotic ardour, the same devotion, 
but more especially among the working classes, who had always 
been accustomed to consider the soldier’s life asa sure road to 
honour and distinction. 

It was strange to behold the changes effected by the air of 
the camp and the smell of gunpowder, in a few months, upon 
our young men so enamoured of the glory of war. New sol- 
diers,—they did not require any length of time to accustom 
them to the soldier’s duties. They advanced boldly upon the 
fire of cannon as if to some amusement. Having left home 
young conscripts, for a campaign, they returned thither veterans 
in experience. Numerous circumstances gave rise to the dis- 


THE CONSCRIPT. 179 


play of valour and of skill,—and this valour, this skill was gene- 
rally found in those of obscure rank,—in those who had been me- 
chanics, How many of our most intrepid officers, of the most 
able generals of that brilliant epoch began life as apprentices in 
the werkshops of our suburbs! 

The wars of that time mowed down a great number of men. 
But of what consequence was death to the heroic recruits of our 
cities and our provinces? ‘To behold them marching gayly for- 
ward to the storming of a dangerous redoubt, or sustaining the 
shock of a powerful charge of cavalry, would not any one say 
that these men believed themselves invulnerable? When we 
hear the dramatic recital of the great imperial expeditions, 
when we figure to ourselves the columns of Austrians, of Prus- 
sians, and of Russians, broken down and destroyed almost in- 
stantaneously, when we learn that the most strongly fortified 
places yielded after a few days to the efforts of our arms, we 
are inclined to think that the French troops, so universally for- 
midable, were composed of veterans grown gray in the service 
of their country. But this was by no means the case. They 
consisted only of the youth of our manufactories and work-shops; 
that ardent youth, intrepid, and often rash, and which three or 
four years before was playing at ball and top in the public 
squares. Now they were playing a much more interesting 
game, that ef war. Before them arose the ladder of promotion, 
rousing and cherishing their noble emulation. The cross of 
honour and the epaulette, those rewards of merit and bravery, 
were the twofold ambition of our young troopers. 

And when, after one of those rapid campaigns which opened 
the gates of Berlin and Vienna to us, the young soldier, profiting 
by a short truce, was able to return and pass a few days under 
the humble roof where he was born, how glorious it was to re- 
appear amongst his family clothed in the insignia of comfnand! 
How brilliant a family triumph! ' The young officer had the joy 
of receiving the congratulations of all his relations; he pressed 
them by turns to his heart, with an unrestrained outpouring of 


180° ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


tenderness, and responded to all their caresses. The affectionate 
sister testified in many ways her attachment; the little brother 
stood on tiptoe to touch the cross upon his breast; the good 
mother hastened to clasp him in her arms, whilst the venerable 
father, a respectable mechanic of former days, claimed his turn 
with a truly patriarchal simplicity. 

- Such home scenes recurred frequently, durmg Napoleon’s 
Teign, in the families of our mechanies. We would readily suffer 
ourselves to be led away by the pleasure of deseribing all their 
details, but space fails, and our subject recalls us. 





CHAPTER XXXIX. 


MAELZEL’S AUTOMATA. 


EONARD MAELZEL, a cele- 
) brated machinist, who merited the 
surname of the German Vaucan- 
son, appeared at that time on the 

AF horizon of the arts. He was born at Ra- 
tisbon, in 1776. He came to Paris in 1808, 

where he excited general astonishment by 

his masterpieces of mechanism. 

We have often been tempted to consider 
as fabulous, the numerous wonders cited by historians when 
speaking of certain artificial machines. But since we have be- 
held some of the automata of Vaucanson, and the speaking heads 
of Mical, we have less reluctance in expressing our credulity. 

For instance, after the duck which eats and digests ; after the 
flute-player which charms all listeners by its brilliant execution, 
it would be ungracious to call into question the figure constructed, 
it is said, by the celebrated Albert le Grand, which opened the 
door of this learned man’s cell, and addressed several sounds to 
those who entered. The same remark may be made with re 
spect to the iron fly made by John Muller, or Regiomontanus 
of Konigsberg. ‘This fly flew round the room and returned to 
settle on the finger of its maker. Some historians mention a 
golden tree belonging to the Emperor Theophilus, which was 
filled with small birds, who produced a melody similar to that 
of nightingales. Finally, King Theodoric, writing to Boetius, 
a constructor of machines, speaks as follows: 


“‘By means of your art, metals emit sounds, birds sing, ser- 
16 (181) 






] 


182 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS, 


pents hiss, and you can give to animals a harmony which they 
have not received from nature.” 

The descriptions of historians have no doubt exaggerated the 
merits claimed by these wonders of mechanism. But what we 
have witnessed in our day authorizes us to believe that these 
accounts are well worthy of confidence. 

For example, the famous musical mechanism which Leonard 
Maelzel exhibited to the admiration of the Parisians in 1808. 

This instrument received from its inventor the name of pan- 
harmonicon. It was moved solely by springs, and was found 
to imitate the sounds of all wind instruments with a precision 
and a perfection which art, in spite of the efforts of the greatest 
masters, had never before been able to attain. 

The instruments of which the panharmonicon is composed, are 


‘ the flute, (flauto picciolo,) the clarionet, the hautboy, the bas- 


soon, the French horn, the trombone, the serpent, and the 
trumpet. We must add the kettle-drum, bass-drum, cymbals, 
triangle, and every other which is a part of musical artillery. The 
appellation panharmonicon, explains the nature and the functions 
of this piece of mechanism. 

Méhul, Cherubini, Pleyel, and other celebrated masters, 
astonished at this prodigious creation, testified their high esteem 
for its author by offering him pieces of music of their own com- 
position. The panharmonicon executed Haydn’s Military 
Symphony, an Echo composed for it by Cherubini, a French 
march, and a series of German dances. 

“It is hardly possible,” says a writer, “for a company of 
musicians to perform military pieces with more precision, with 
the variations of piano and forte more exactly marked, and more 
truly certain. It was not merely an illusion; the true sounds 
of the instruments themselves were heard. The trumpet execu- 
tion, especially, astonished a virtuoso, and could not be surpassed. 
The principal merit of this mechanism was, that the contriver 
had known how to provide for each instrument its proper em- 


v 





MAELZEL’S METRONOME. 183 


bouchure, and one which, at the same time, corresponded per- 
fectly to the powers of the human organs.” 

Together with his panharmonicon, Maelzel exhibited a figure 
of human size and proportions, representing a trumpeter in the 
Archduke Albert of Saxe Teschen’s regiment of Austrian 
cuirassiers. 

This figure sounded all the cavalry manceuvres, and accom- 
panied the piano. 

Still later, this able mechanician rendered a great service to 
musical science, by inventing the ingenious instrument to which 
the name of metronome has been given. 

I will endeavour to give my readers an idea of the mechanism 
and the utility of this instrument. It is universally known that 
in order to indicate the different degrees of rapidity of move- 
ment in music, words borrowed from the Italian have long been 
in use; but as composers have not all made use of the same 
mark for the same movement, and as many have attached various 
significations to the same mark, the performer is necessarily 
liable to error, unless some arbitrary interpretation were affixed 
to these. 

This inconvenience was a great one; Maelzel’s metronome 
removed it completely. The principal part of this instrument is 
a pendulum, whose bob being moveable up and down onthe rod, 
is thus capable of increasing or decreasing the length of a note 
or bar, as required by the character of the music. The length or 
duration of a note is often expressed at the head of a piece of 
music by stating that a pendulum of a given length in inches, 
will vibrate a minim, crotchet, or other note, as the case may be. 

As soon as the metronome became generally known, that is 
to say, as soon as its merits had stood a short test, the most re- 
nowned Parisian composers, Berton, Boieldieu, Catel, Paer, 
Cherubini, Herold, and various others, appreciating the simpli- 
city and the precision of the metronome, signed a resolution to 
make use of its system for marking the time of their music. 
The renown of this instrument soon spread over all Europe, 


184 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


and Maelzel obtained patents, not only in France, but in Eng- 
land, Austria, and Bavaria. 

At the Louvre exhibition in 1823, some extremely curious 
speaking figures were displayed, the work of the author of the 
metronome and the panharmonicon. | 

Such are Maelzel’s claims to the great reputation his name 
has obtained. But, to speak the truth, if he had made nothing 
but automata, however ingenious and curious the mystery of 
their construction, he would be now almost forgotten. Even 
his panharmonicon, notwithstanding the eulogiums passed upon 
it by men of musical science, would not have been sufficient to 
perpetuate his name. Who, at the present day, remembers the 
name of Corneille Drebbel? Nevertheless, this man, of a most 
inventive genius, constructed a musical instrument which opened 
of itself at sunrise, and played of itself the whole day whilst 
the sun was in the sky; when the sun disappeared, its sounds 
died away, but could be renewed by the application of heat to 
the outer part of the instrument, in which case it would play 
again, as if in the sunshine. This was, in some sort, an imita- 
tion of the statue of Memnon, so celebrated in the ancient Greek 
mythology. I will add another example. 


According to the accounts of several historians, when Henry 


III., brother of Charles IX., King of France, was elected King 
of Poland, and made his entrance into Cracovia, the Poles en- 
deavoured to testify their joy by public festivals of all kinds. 
Among other marks of respect appeared one which was a mas- 
terpiece of mechanism. Wherever the king passed, he was 
followed, and we may say escorted by a white eagle, made with 
such art that it did not cease for one instant to fly around the 
young monarch, flapping its wings over his head. ‘This was, 
undoubtedly, a most extraordinary machine; and yet who can 
tell, at the present day, the name of the man who conceived the 
idea, and put it so skilfully into practice? 

This species of curious ingenuity is not alone sufficient to im- 
‘mortalize a man. But on the other hand, however simple a me- 





USEFUL INVENTIONS. 185 


chanism may be, if it is useful to mankind, it is sure to perpetu- 
ate the inventor’s name, unless it originated in a barbarous age. 
Tradition has preserved the names of William Beuchels and 
John Rouvet, because the former first taught the art of salting 
and packing herrings, and the latter was the inventor of the art 
of floating wood. | 

History will never forget the modest Jacquard, who, by the 
invention of the machine which bears his name, has contributed 
gteatly to the prosperity of an important branch of manufac- 
tures. In the same manner Maelzel will remain immortal through 
his metronome ; even if musical science should ever be entirely 
overturned by one of those revolutions which sometimes take 
place in the regions influenced by the human mind, his name 
will always maintain a place in the annals of general scienze. 


HA Ad SNS myer pe 
q\ RSS my 
i Ht ii \ fil Hy 








CHAPTER XL. 


CALICOES, SILKS, AND OTHER TEXTILE FABRICS. 


T this period we meet with a founder of 
important manufactories, who, by the ser- 
vices he rendered to his country, demands 
our attention and the gratitude of al! 
France. I speak of Oberkampf. 

Born at Weissenbourg in 1738, Ober- 
kampf served an apprenticeship to his 
father, in the manufacture of printed calicoes. The latter, an 
ingenious and industrious man, had established a manufacture at 
Aarau, in Switzerland, where he was naturalized in return for 
his energetic efforts in favour of his art. Under so skilful a 
master, the young man acquired much valuable information, 
which afterwards gained him both fortune and fame. 

At that time, printed calicoes and chintzes only were known 
in France, and were sold at very high prices. A severe pro- 
hibition forbade their importation from other countries. The 


interests of the cultivation of hemp and flax, as well as that of 
(186) 





OBERKAMPE. 187 


the preparation of silk, were the principal motives alleged against 
it. A man of a genius as persevering as that of Oberkampf 
was required to triumph over these obstacles. 

Full of his project for founding a manufactory, Oberkampf 
set out for Paris with the moderate sum of six hundred francs, 
the fruits of his savings. He was then but nineteen. After 
many efforts and many solicitations, he obtained, in 1759, the 
permission to form an establishment, and set himself to work at 
once. | : 

He remarked, in the neighbourhood of Versailles, a desert 
piece of ground, situated in the valley of Jouy. It was here 
that he laid the foundation of his manufactory of printed cali- 
coes. An extensive marsh made this spot extremely unwhole- 
some; but ingenious labour dried it, and rendered it an agree- 
able and salubrious residence. At first, Oberkampf, reduced to 
his own resources, lived alone in a small peasant’s house, ful- 
filling, by turns, the functions of designer, calico printer, and 
painter. But his solitary residence was soon peopled in a sur- 
prising manner. He undertook the charge of pupils who as- 
sisted him in his labours. By degrees his establishment in- 
creased and prospered. ‘Thousands of labourers and workmen 
crowded thither, bringing with them new resources, new talents ; 
and, notwithstanding the persecutions and the difficulties to 
which Oberkampf was subject, he had the honour, by the exhi- 
bition of the products of his manufactories, of setting France 
free from the tribute paid to foreign countries. 

From one year to another, the Jouy manufactory received 
important additions. Oberkampf had agents in England and 
Germany, and even in India and Persia, who procured him all 
the technical information relative to the secrets of his art, espe- 
cially in dyeing. He succeeded in making window-blinds, at 
Jouy, of printed calico, coloured and designed after the manner 
of the old-fashioned church-windows, and which, by admitting 
the light, had a very beautiful effect. 

Before the breaking out of the revolution, Oberkampf was in 


188 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


the enjoyment of considerable renown. Louis XVI., in order 
to recompense him for having created so important a branch of 
industry, wished to ennoble him ; but Oberkampf had the pru- 
dent modesty to refuse an honour which would make him the 
object of much envy. During the reign of terror, it was not 
without difficulty that he escaped from banishment and from 
death. 

Oberkampf obtained the gold medal at the exhibition in 
1806. The printed calicoes from Alsace took the second rank: 

Napoleon, whose great mind embraced every thing which 
contributed to the prosperity of his empire, did not neglect the 
eminent merit of Oberkampf. 

~ During a succession of visits made by him to the manufactu- 
ring towns of the west and north of France, surprised to behold 
himself every where surrounded by manufactories founded by 
Terneaux, the emperor exclaimed in admiration : “ Why, Monsieur 
Terneaux, I find you and your works every where!” 

When he visited the Jouy manufactory, he took the cross 
from his own breast and placed it upon that of Oberkampf. At 
a second visit he addressed to him the following extremely flat- 
tering words: ‘‘ You, as the founder of Jouy, and I as emperor, 
carry on an animated war with England; you oppose them by 
your industry, I by arms; nevertheless, I must confess, your 
mode of battle is preferable to mine.” 

At that very time, Oberkampf was employed in seeking a 
means of imitating the English method of spinning and weaving 
cotton. This was the origin of the cotton spinning mill at Es- 
sone, the first ever established in France. } 

In 1790, the council general of the department of Oise, in 
consideration of Oberkampf’s services, wished to erect a statue 
in honour of him; but he, with the same modesty which in- 
duced him to decline Louis X VI.’s offer, would not consent to it. 
Under the empire he also refused the dignity of senator, offered 
him by the chief dignitary of the country. 

Oberkampf’s last days were embittered by grief. This was 





OBERKAMPE. 189 


in 1815. His industry had much to suffer from the invasion of 
foreign troops. - He sighed at the view of the picturesque walks 
in the neighbourhood of his manufactory, which now presented 
the mournful silence of poverty and despair, instead of the life 
and activity which he had formerly by his own example in- 
troduced in this well-loved spot. His workshops were closed ; 
the workmen with whom they had for sixty-one years been 
filled, asked for work and for bread.—‘ This spectacle kills me,” 
said the venerable Oberkampf, and he died in fact, in the month 
of October, 1815. 

The branch of industry_-which owe its origin to Oberkampf 
has spread over all France with rare prosperity. Numerous es- 
tablishments have been formed upon the plan of that at Jouy. 
The workmen employed in them are estimated at from two to 
three hundred thousand. From a raw material of the value of 
60,000,000 francs, France gainsa profit of 240,000,000. At 
present the richest and most beautiful designs are printed on cot- 
ton ; three or four colours are combined, presenting a beautifully 
shaded appearance. The exportation of printed calicoes has 
been an important part of French commerce. This material is 
used for bed and window-curtains, coverings for divans, sofas, 
arm-chairs, &c. At the present day the valué of the printed 
cottons exported by us, exceeds 53,000,000 frames. And all 
owing to Oberkampf. 

In imitation of Oberkampf and of Races, other manu- 
facturers instituted new arts, or originated important improve- 
ments. 

In 1806, the manufactories of Saint Quentin and Tarare ob- 
tained gold medals for the excellence of their muslins. Their 
success was an extremely remarkable manufacturing triumph, 
for it is well known that this branch of trade presents great 
difficulties in the weaving of cotton. 

The town of Lyons, so long under the axe and the fire of a 
revolutionary goverriment, had resumed her rank among the 
manufacturing cities of France; and, thanks to the protection 


190 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


and encouragement afforded by Napoleon, her days of pros- 
perity came back to her. 

At the exhibition in 1806, the richness and beauty of the 
Lyons silks were much admired, especially in velvets and satins. 

What marvellous improvements have been made in the pre- 
paration of silk and the art of weaving it, since its introduction 
into France from the country of Seres ? 

It was not until the seventeenth century of the Christian era, 
that this event, so remarkable in the annals of history, took 
place ; previously the true nature of silk was not understood in 
European countries. 'The Romans, masters of the universe, were 
long in ignorance of the uses to which it might be applied ; so 
that among them silk was sold for its weight in gold. 

In the introduction to his Universal Dictionary of Commer- 
cial Geography, the conscientious Peuchet gives an interesting 
account of the curious circumstances attendant upon the origin 
of the cultivation of silk in Europe. 

“The Emperor Justinian,” says he, “ desiring to free the 
commerce of his subjects from the exactions of ‘the Persians, 
endeavoured, by the aid of his ally the Christian King of Abys- 
sinia, to take from the Persians a part of the silk trade. He 
was unsuccessful in this attempt, but a sudden and unexpected 
event placed within his reach, to a certain degree, the object he 
had laboured to attain. 

‘Two Persian monks having been employed as missionaries in 
some of the Christian churches, which, according to Cosmas, 
were established in different parts of India, had opened a road 
for themselves into the country of Seres, or China. There they 
observed the silk-worm’s labours, and made themselves ac- 
quainted with all the processes by which this fine thread is con= 
verted into so great a variety of beautiful stuffs, attracting 
general admiration. ‘The hope of future gain, or perhaps a holy 
indignation at beholding infidel nations in the sole possession of 
so leivetive a branch of commerce, induced them to return im- 
mediately to Constantinople. . 


SILK. 191 





Justinian and the Persian Monks. 


There they explained to the emperor the origin of silk, and 
the various modes of manufacturing and preparing it. Encou- 
raged by his liberal promises, they undertook to bring thither a 
sufficient number of those industrious little creatures, to whose 
efforts man owes so much. Consequently, they filled hollowed 

- eane-stalks with silk-worms’ eggs; hatched them in the warmth 
_ of a dunghill; fed them on the leaves of the wild mulberry, and 
the worms multiplied and worked in the same manner as in the 
hot climates where they first attracted the attention of man.” 
A great number were soon naturalized in different parts of the 
Grecian empire, and especially in the Peloponnesus. Afterwards 
(in 1130), Sicily undertook, and with great success, the breed- 
ing of silk-worms, and the example was followed in various 
towns throughout Italy. Manufactories of considerable extent 
were established in all these places, and the new production made 
up into different stuffs. The same great quantity of silk was 
no longer brought from the East ; the subjects of the Greek em- 
perors were no longer obliged to have recourse to the Persians 








ee ae 
sy Ss Sey scts 


192 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


for this article, and great changes took place in the nature of" 
the commercial relations of Europe and India. 

From Italy and Spain, the manufacture of silk passed into the 
southern provinces of France. In 1470, silk manufactories were 
established in Tours, by Louis X.; but the workmen here em- 
ployed came from Italy, and even from Greece. Henry IV., in. 
his turn, established a silk manufactory in the Chateau of the 
Tuileries, and in that of Madrid, near Paris. This prince was 
also the founder of the first silk manufactories at Lyons. He 
entered into an arrangement with those who undertook the 
direction of the establishment, by which they were to go annu- 
ally into Spain in search of silk-worms’ eggs. 

In order to accelerate the progress of this branch of industry, 
Henry IV. caused white mulberry trees to be planted, and silk- 
worm nurseries to be established in the neighbourhood of Lyons. 

Still later, towards the middle of the seventeenth century, 
Octavio Ney, a merchant of Lyons, discovered the secret of 
giving a lustre to silk. Towards 1717, Jurines, a dealer in 
ornamental articles, of the same place, invented a very conve- 
nient nacigag the fabrication of silk stuffs; and at the same 
time, an ingenious mechanism was brought into use by a manu- 
facturer of the name of Falcon, the object of which was to. 
facilitate the labour of the workmen employed. 

In consequence of the powerful impulse given by Napoleon, 
other improvements and other inventions were successively in- 
troduced into this branch of manufactures. 

In 1806, Gensoul, of Lyons, received the highest reward at 
the exhibition for the invention of a process for heating by steam 
the water contained in the vessels in which the cocoons are 
placed to be wound. This process is not only economical as 
regards fuel, but also contributes much to the beauty of the silk. 

At the same exhibition, Dagaz, and Saint Chamond, manu- 
facturers, obtained the gold medal for their plain and figured 
ribands of satin, velvet, &c.; and, besides this honour, received | 
the following commendation from the committee appointed to 


SILK MANUFACTURES. 193 


judge of the articles exhibited: ‘* These ribands seem to have 
been made for the purpose of putting to shame those which 
England has hitherto produced.” 

At the same time, the manufacturer Bonnard acquired an in- 
disputable superiority over other manufacturers in the fabri- 
cation of crape and silk tulle. Nothing can surpass the beauty 
of his tulle, which is of a double net, and is not injured by 
washing. 

Among the silk stuffs displayed to view at this exhibition, 
were some with raised figures of gold and silver, which equalled 
the finest embroidery. 

Let us also mention the efforts of Bontems, a Parisian, who 
imitated the Madras handkerchiefs, which were a mixture of 
silk and cotton; those of Leblanc Paroissien, of Rouen, who, by 
the aid of a simple contrivance, succeeded in rendering the pro- 
cess of shearing cloth more rapid, easy, and regular. At 
Louviers, Marzeline napped cloth by a useful mechanism con- 
sisting of a continued rotation. Pouchet, the ingenious Rouen 
manufacturer, twice received the gold medal for improvements 
in carding, winding, and weaving cotton. 

Whilst our manufacturers, stimulated by Napoleon’s en- 
couragement, daily increased the revenue of the country, our 
victorious armies made their power known to all the united 
nations of Europe. ‘During this remarkable reign of ten years, 
styled the empire, the French grenadier, with his knapsack on 
his back, was to be met with in all parts of Europe. He might 
be mistaken for another Ahasuerus, but with this difference, that 
every step of his route was marked by a-victory, and that he 
made all people respect the imperial eagle, from the Tiber to the 
Danube, from the Ebro to the Volga. 

Under the pleasant shade of these triumphs, the French 
manufactories bloomed and prospered. All Europe,” says M. 
Charles Dupin, “accepts, either from inclination or compulsion, 
the prohibition to make use of English manufactures. England 

17 


194 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


declares a continental blockade against all Europe. One single 
potentate, the Emperor of Russia, refused to agree to this pro- 
hibition ; thence arose a pretext for a war, in which the elements 
struggled against us, and Napoleon’s army, victorious over all 
the rest of Europe, was destroyed by cold and famine.” 











James Watt. 


CHAPTER XLI. 


THE STEAM ENGINE—SAFETY LAMP—STANHOPE 
PRINTING-PRESS. es 


N speaking of the scientific part of manufactures, 
2. equity commands us to put aside all that narrow 
h@ spirit of nationality which raises a barrier be- 
y\).Wig tween one people and another. Science.should 

F be cosmopolite; its conquests are, so to speak, 
common property. Every one enjoys them, and 
the men who spend their lives in labouring for 
the welfare of their fellow-beings, who conse- 
crate their genius, their hours of study, their whole existence, 
to useful inventions,—these men, I say, have strong claims upon 
the respect and gratitude of the whole world. 

Who, for example, would blame us for placing in our gallery 
of illustrious mechanics, the Scotchman, James Watt, or Hum- 
phrey Davy, the Englishman? Are not some names as popular 


in our continental countries as in Great Britain? Assuredly ; 
(195) 





196 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


and it would be most silly to omit them in a work such as ours ; 
for, if this were done, it might, without hyperbole, be said, that 
these celebrated names were actually noticed in the omission 
itself. : | 

The Institute of France professed the same opinions with re- 
gard to this subject ; and proved them, in 1808, by calling James 
Watt to a place among its eight foreign members. 

James Watt, born in 1736, at Greenock, in Scotland, was at 
first a simple workman in the establishment of a mathematical 
instrument maker in London. His weak health obliging him to 
return to his native country, he fixed himself at Glasgow, and 
at the age of twenty obtained the title of philosophical instru- 
ment maker in the university of that city. 

But James Watt’s merits did not end here. From a skilful 
workman, he rose to the rank of an.engineer of the first order. 
Important canal improvements spread his reputation throughout 
England. At last a discovery of the highest importance pro- 
cured him an imperishable fame as a mechanician. | 

James Watt happened to be intrusted with the repairing of a 
model of a steam engine, constructed upon Newcomen’s plan, 
and destined for the instruction of the students at Oxford. This 
circumstance gave him an opportunity of examining the defects 
in this machine and the means of remedying them, and inventing 
improvements. 

In Newcomen’s plan there was a great loss of heat, conse- 
quent upon the injection of cold water, for the purpose of con- 
densing the vapour. Watt invented a plan for completely con- 
densing the vapour in Newcomen’s atmospheric engine, without 
cooling the cylinder. ‘This was effected by means of a conden- 
ser detached from the cylinder. Other fortunate efforts followed. 
Iie added a pump, put in motion by the engine itself, and which 
draws off the hot water and air from the condenser. 

To give an idea of the importance of the successive improve- 
ments made by Watt in Newcomen’s atmospheric machine, it 





BOLTON AND WATT. 197 


will be sufficient to state that the economy in fuel was valued 
at sixty per cent. 

Notwithstanding these sdeainek: it is to be presumed that 
Watt’s discoveries would have remained buried in the obscurity 
of his workshop, if it had not been for the well-directed and 
generous assistance of Matthew Bolton, one of the first of the 
Birmingham manufacturers. Watt, of a reserved disposition, 
mixing but little with the world, and carrying his modesty to a 
degree of timidity and shyness rarely to be met with, was not 
capable of turning his discoveries and inventions to advantage. 
Matthew Bolton, understanding the whole force of the young 
man’s genius, obtained accurate information of the extent of his 
labours as a mechanician, and placed the whole of his fortune 
at Watt’s disposal. 

Bolton had expended, in the establishment of workshops and 
foundries, as much as 1,250,000 francs, from which he had not 
yet received any return. Soon after, in order to assure full 
success to Watt’s machines, he offered to provide them gratui- 
tously to all those who wished for them, and to keep them in 
repair at his own expense; asking, as sole indemnity, one-third 
of the money saved in fuel by the new engine. 

Such liberal conditions brought the engine into use for work- 
ing mines, and the profits which accrued to Bolton and Watt 
were very great. 

Encouraged by this success, Watt continued his researches 
with a zeal truly worthy of his extraordinary genius. What he 
sought now was the application of steam to manufactures of all 
kinds; and he laboured hard to construct an engine, by means 
of which the power of steam could be applied to any mechanism 
whatsoever. 

In this manner he succeeded in the completion of the true 
steam engine, and placed in the hands of mankind a continual, 
uniform, and constant power, infinitely divisible, and equally 
susceptible of increase as well as of general application. 


James Watt, although he received neither instruction nor for- 
17* 


‘198 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


tune from his parents, became, by his own efforts, one of the 
best-informed men in England. In continuing and bringing to 
perfection the attempts of Solomon de Caus, Papin, and New- 
comen, he gained a victory over the title of inventor by placing 
the power of steam under man’s authority. He died, in 1819, 
at the age of eighty-four. 

Humphrey Davy, if he had invented nothing but the safety- 
lamp, that discovery so useful to the miner, would, for that alone, 
merit the eternal gratitude of the true friends of humanity. 

It is well known, that in coal mines an inflammable gas is fre- 
quently generated, which, unfortunately for the miners, when 
mixed with atmospheric air is liable to take fire from the flame 
of a lamp, and to explode with great violence, mutilating and 
wounding all those who happen to be present, and destroying 
whatever opposes its passage, however solid it may be. 

It was a desire to put an end to such disastrous accidents, 
which suggested to Davy the fortunate idea of the safety-lamp. 

With this view he visited the mines. After ascertaining that 
the carburetted hydrogen, of which the inflammable gas is com- 
posed, would not explode if mixed with less than six and more 
than fourteen times its own volume of atmospheric air, he dis- 
covered, besides, that explosive mixtures cannot be inflamed 
through minute apertures in metallic surfaces or tissues; and 
finally, that a mixture of air and carburetted hydrogen, in pro- 
portions otherwise explosive, would not explode if confined in a 
tube of small diameter, and proportionate length. 

In consequente of these observations, Davy constructed a 
lamp, the flame of which was wholly enclosed. in a cylinder of 
fine wire gauze. Experience has proved that this cylinder, this 
metallic cage is impenetrable to a current of inflammable gas; the 
latter will burn on the inside of it, around the flame of the lamp, 
and at last extinguish it, but will not burn on the outside of the 
wire gauze. 

Chance had no part in this important discovery ; it was a pro- 


HUMPHREY DAVY. 199 





The Safety-Lamp. 


found acquaintance with the propagation and distribution of 
heat alone which rendered this valuable service to humanity. 

“This. lamp, more marvellous than the magical one of Alad- 
din,” says an author, “has saved the lives of thousands of mi- 
ners. The illustrious inventor shed additional glory upon his 
discovery ; he might have made it a means of great profit to 
himself; but sacrificing all selfish feelings to an anxious desire for 
the well-being of the human race, he abandoned all such ideas.” 

Humphrey Davy began his life very much as did James Watt. 
Like him he had known poverty ; like him, also, he knew how 
to repair the wrongs of fortune by his own efforts. A short 
time after the death of his father, who left a widow and five 
children in narrow circumstances, Humphrey Davy, who was 
the eldest, was apprenticed to an apothecary in Penzance, his 
native village, in Cornwall. But, endowed with an original, 
independent, and somewhat eccentric mind, the apprentice stu- 
died after a fashion of his own; so that, after some time, the 
apothecary, who was incapable of understanding him, was glad 
to get rid of the troublesome fellow: 


200 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Nevertheless, this troublesome Sellowhad, at that early period 
of his life, made great advances in scientific studies. Unable 
as he was to purchase any instruments, he supplied their place 
by whatever fell within his reach. Broken pipes and glass tubes 
were his apparatus. He made a pneumatic machine out of a 

syringe. With such a laboratory he proceeded to the analysis 
of the gas contained in certain aquatic plants called Sucus. 

Nevertheless, the young Humphrey only met with ‘discou- 
ragement from ‘the beginning of his career as a chemist. His 
nascent genius was disdained, misunderstood, and rudely checked. 
Such a mind as he possessed was required to triumph over so 
many disadvantages, and to gather new strength from every 
shock. 

The following eee is related by M. Ferry, in his ere 
clopedia, under the article Davy :— 

A chemist of renown, son of the illustrious Watt, came to 
spend some time with the mother of Humphrey Davy. This 
timid young man was extremely ambitious of the honour of con- 
versing with so learned a guest; but he must first fit himself 
for a conversation on the subject of chemistry. Lavoisier’s trea- 
tise, translated into English, fell in his way. In two days he 
studied the whole work, commented upon it, and entertained 
some still newer views. The youth who hardly knew how to 
prepare an opiate, presented himself as a bold imnovator in a 
science then considered susceptible of but few ulterior improve- 
ments. ‘The discussion was animated; Mr. Watt, however, 
did not comprehend the remarkable talents of a man, who at the 
age of eighteen, without the advantages of instruction, had gain- 
ed so great an amount of knowledge, and was able to communi- 
cate it with so much clearness. Humphrey did not, therefore, 
find in his mother’s guest a Mecenas disposed to assist the soar- 
ings of his genius; but having received a new impulse, he d 
not long remain in obscurity. 

~ This troublesome fellow, as the apothecary of Penzance had 
designated him, became a professor of great distinetion. The 


EARL STANHOPE. 201 


Royal Society of London admitted him among its members. The 

Institute of France decreed him a prize, notwithstanding the 
war between theFrench and English governments. The Prince 
Regent knighted him, and subsequently elevated him to the rank 
of a baronet. 

Finally, when this illustrious man died, in 1829, he had had 
the honour of succeeding the celebrated Sir Joseph Banks, in 
the presidency of the Royal Society of London. 

Sir Humphrey Davy contributed greatly to the advancement 
of science. His discoveries in the properties of.chlorine, and in 
the decomposition of earths by galvansim, have wrought great 
changes in the science of chemistry,—changes which may be 
called revolutions of a most astonishing nature. . His researches 
into the effects of the respiration of various gases gave rise to 
new and important truths. Unfortunately, they were fatal to 
the author of them; for there is reason to think that his various 
experiments of this kind injured his naturally delicate constitu- 
tion, and hastened his premature death. 

Before we return to the national illustrations of our subject, 
let us do homage to another learned and ingenious Englishman, 
who deserves honourable mention in this book devoted to the 
efforts, the improvements, and the naentne, with which his 
career was filled. 

Charles, Earl Stanhope, dne of the most distinguished mem- 
bers of the British House of Lords, was also one of the most 
active and enterprising spirits of hisage. At the age of eighteen, 
he gained a prize from the Society of Arts and Sciences in 
Sweden for his pendulum. The phenomena of lightning, and 
the means of averting their dangerous effects, were long the 
objects of his researches and experiments. He occupied him- 
self also with improving arithmetical machines, the inventions of 
various men of genius. The result of his labours was a truly 
admirable invention. 

** One of these machines, which is of the size of an octavo vol- 
ume,” says a biographer, “ serves to perform with perfect accu- 


202 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


racy the most complicated operations of addition and subtraction 
By aid of the other, which is nearly of the size of a writing: 
table, one may easily resolve the difficulties of multiplication and 
division. If it happens that the operator fails in attention, and 
makes a mistake, a spring, which sets a little ball of ivory in 
motion, points out to him his error.” 

Earl Stanhope is the inventor of the printing-press which 
bears his name, and which has effected a revolution in the art of 
typography. This last invention, which dates from 1815, 
occurred only a short time before the death of the inventor, 
which took em on the 13th of deer in the year 
following. 

It was not until 1820, that the iron printing-press, invented 
by him, was brought from England to France. Several skilful 
mechanicians immediately imitated it. M. Bresson’s Stanhope 
press was remarked; but has been but seldom reproduced. 
Those of this kind which have been improved upon by MM. 
Thonnelier and Gavaux, are held in high estimation. 

To Earl Stanhope are also due various improvements in the 
construction of several musical instruments; a new method of 
covering houses with a composition of pitch, sand, and chalk, 
which has perhaps led to the asphaltum and bitumen of the pre- 
sent day; and a new mode of burning lime, by which the cement 
produced is much harder than ordinary cement. 








Gaspard Monge. 


' CHAPTER XLII. 


MONGE, THE GEOMETRICIAN. 







“\~ T is impossible to make mention of 
}\ the progress of mathematical science 
under the empire, without letting fall a 
portion of praise and some laurels upon the 
memory of aman who did much in its ser- 
vice. 

This was Gaspard Monge, the illustrious son of a little 
hawker of Beaune, who, in spite of numerous obstacles, became 
one of our greatest geometricians ; obtained the honours due to 
genius, and maintained throughout his elevation, a candour, and 
a generosity, which did him no less honour than his active 
labours. 


This man, born to give a new impulse to mathematical sciences, 
(203) 


ft 
f 


iI 


i) 


204 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


was at first placed at the royal school of Méziéres, among 
draughtsmen and stone-hewers, an humble station which Madame 
Roland disdainfully ranked with that of a mason, some years 
afterwards. : 

But the mason was destined to instruct the whole learned 
world. | 

The genius of Monge came to light of itself. The learned 
Nollet, well known for his Philosophical Researches, and the 
celebrated Bossut, then professor of mathematics, were anxious 
to have the modest stone-hewer as an assistant professor. The 
young man soon became a professor in reality, and began his 
glorious career by the discovery of the elements of water, like 
Lavoisier, Cavendish, and Laplace, of whose labours he was 
entirely ignorant. Called to Paris, his genius appeared to de- 
velope still more rapidly in that large sphere; the Academy of 
Sciences opened its doors to him (1780); three years afterwards 
he, succeded Bezout in the professorship of instructor of the 
navy pupils. 

At the beginning of the revolution, Monge, invested almost 
in spite of himself with the functions of minister of war, 
brought his vast fund of information into the service of his ~ 
country, and displayed an active and energetic care for her in- 
terests, the happy effects of which were felt in every port of 
France. 

Compelled by the power of party intrigue to resign his minis- 
terial station, Monge still continued to be useful to his country. 
A formidable coalition menaced the frontiers of France; but 
cannon, saltpetre, and powder, were wanting for our defence. 
‘Monge proved what science is able to perform when applied to 
the wants of man. He discovered'a new process for refining 
saltpetre ; he substituted a moulding of sand for that of earth 
in the casting of cannons; he invented a more expeditious me- 
thod of perforation than the one in general use, and instructed a 
large number of pupi's in the art of making cannons. 

After the revolution, or at least after its greatest violence 


MONGE. ~ 205 


was past, Monge was placed at the head of the institution 
created under the name of normal school ; he composed his im- 
mortal work on Statics; he took an active part in the founda- 
tion of the polytechnic school, of which he was one of the most 
illustrious professors; he accompanied the expedition to Egypt 
as aman of learning, as well as in the capacity of an officer, 
and upon his return, took his place again at the head of his 
beloved pupils. 

The title of Count of Peluze, an ancient city whose ruins he 
had explored in Africa, the senatorship of Liege, the cross of 
the Legion of Honour, and that of the order of the Reunion, 
were the rewards heaped by Napoleon upon the head of his old 
friend; and great as they were, they seemed to fall far short of 
the fong and brilliant services rendered by the modest Monge 
to his country. - But he set no great value upon dignities. 
He remained the same simple-hearted man, the same amiable, 
generous man in prosperity as he was in his obscure youth, 
maintaining the same fondness for study and improvement 
which actuated his early years. He died in July, 1818, and 
France and science mourned his loss. 

Monge, in giving rise to the art of descriptive geometry, has 
shed a strong light upon the subject of building, from the mili- 
tary fortification to the humblest dwelling-house. He knew how 
to bring science down to the level of application to_ general 
every-day matters. His treatise entitled Stereotomy, is truly 
worthy of him: a treatise on the art of cutting through solid 
bodies. 

I will conclude this imperfect sketch with one of the numerous 
features in the life of Monge, which betrays in its fullest de- 
velopement the beauty and delicacy of his soul. 

Monge had just taken possession of Bezout’s professorship. 
Marshal Castries, at that time minister, expressed a wish that 
the new professor should revise the elementary course of mathe- 
matics left by his predecessor; Monge resolutely refused to do 


18 


206 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


this, alleging as a reason, that Bezout’s works were the only 
inheritance of his widow, and that he was unwilling to deprive 
the wife of a man who had done so much for science and his 
country, of any thing which might be of profit to her. Admira- 
ble disinterestedness, rarely imitated in this age of vile egotism 
and rapacious cupidity ! 


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wil bins 
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CHAPTER XLIII. 


GOLD AND SILVER. 


g,, APOLEON’S reign was an epoch of the 
_ renewal of the goldsmith’s art; that art 
‘Ss which, by the richness of its work, is so 
“appropriate to the pomp of religious cere- 
4 monies, and to ornaments for handsome apart- 
ments, as well as table-services. 

The gold and silversmith’s art has been 
known to a greater or less degree among all nations who have been 
accustomed to luxury and opulence. From the most remote an- 
tiquity, gold and silver were used for vessels, as the accounts in 
the Bible, and the descriptions given by Homer, Virgil, and 
other poets of antiquity, testify. 

According to Goguet, Achilles’ shield, as described by Homer, 
renders it certain that, at the time of the Trojan war, this art 
had reached no very great degree of perfection in Asia. The 
Scriptures speak of an artist called Bezaleel, who, by the aid 
of great talents in that line, constructed all the ornaments in 

the ‘Temple at Jerusalem. 

Among the artists of this kind who were Gictineinichie at 
Rome, history has preserved the name of Praxiteles, a contempo- 
rary of Pompey, whom, however, we must not confound with 
the Athenian sculptor of that name. The lower empire had 
also its artificers in gold and silver; but bad taste had begun tc 
invade the dominion of the arts, and the graceful and natural 
desighs of the ancients were succeeded by-others, entirely want- 
ing in both those qualities. 

In the middle ages, the piety of the faithful contributed much 
to the progress of this art. What could be more beautiful than 
the work displayed in the shrines, the reliquaries, the vases and 
(207) 







{des 


208 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


other church ornaments in use in the different centuries of that 
religious epoch! ‘In studying the arts and the industry of the 
middle ages,” says M. Capefigue, “ what masterpieces of beauty 
do we not meet with! What finish in carving and shaping! 
Who, in the present day, among gold. and silversmiths, could 
vie with Saint Eloi of antiquity, an account of whom has been 
handed down to us by a legend?” 

This Saint Eloi, now read of only in old songs, was distin- 
guished in the seventh century by a rare skill in the art of 
working in gold and silver. King Clotaire IL., having com- 
manded him to construct a seat or throne of royal magnificence, 
sent the young workman the quantity of gold deemed sufficient 
for the execution of his charge. But Eloi, with the material 
provided him, made, instead of one throne, two of exactly simi- 
lar appearance, equally well made, and equally magnificent. 
The artist could in no better manner have proved not only his 
skill, but also his scrupulous honesty. This act made his for- 
tune. He was made public treasurer; distinguished himself in 
several negotiations intrusted to him; became a priest, and was 
elected Bishop of Noyon. After his death, which took place 
on the first of December, 659, he was canonized in remembrance 
of his virtues and his benefits. 

In a manuscript edition of this saint’s prayers, the pious bishop 
is represented standing, in his cope and mitre, holding in one 
hand the episcopal cross, and with the other blessing the fire 
kindled in his workshop. An anvil is in front of his furnace, and 
on it a compass and a hammer}; a simple homage to the dignity 
of the useful arts. | 

The annals of the middle ages are very sparing of the names 
of the pious artists who consecrated their leisure hours to orna- 
menting churches. It is with great difficulty that in the eighth 
and ninth centuries we discover those of Sens, Bernelin, and 
Bernuin, who, by their united efforts, constructed a table of gold, 
enriched with precious stones and inscriptions. 


Under the reign of Philip the Bold, at the end of the thirteenth 


BENVENUTO CELLINI. 209 


century, a goldsmith named Raoul, renowned for his talents in 
this line, was ennobled. This was the first instance of honour 
conferred on one belonging to the working classes, which ever 
took place in France. 

In the year 1330, the goldsmith’s art was particularly no- 
ticed by Philip of Valois, who instituted laws governing it, and 
gave to it a coat of arms, consisting of a notched cross on a 
field gules, accompanied by two crowns, and two cups of gold, 
surmounted by the French standard. 

Afterwards, King John permitted the body of goldsmiths to 
build a chapel, under the name and invocation of Saint Eloi. 

Under Francis'I. appeared the Florentine, Benvenuto Cellini, 
an artist of the first order, who gave his art a brilliancy it had 
never before possessed, and which has never been since surpassed. 

Francis I. evinced a great admiration for the talents of Ben- 
venuto Cellini, and loaded him with benefits. But this artist 
was unreasonably proud. He could not endure the disdain and 
the insolent treatment of the Duchess d’Etampes, who was all 
powerful at the court; and leaving France, where he had lived 
at his ease, he retired to his native village, and died there in 
poverty, in 1570. | 

Benvenuto, in his memoirs, relates: the circumstance which 
induced him to leave France. He had executed a small silver 
vase, of exquisite workmanship, which he designed as a present 
for the Duchess d’Etampes, and which he set out to convey to 
her, in the idea that she was offended, because in a visit paid by 
the king and herself to his residence, at Nesle, his majesty had 
admired the various models prepared for ornamenting Fontaine- 
bleau, when the lady had differed from him in opinion. 

‘I took the pretty little vase,” says Benvenuto, “ which I 
had made for her, thinking to regain her good graces, and car- 
ried it myself. I spoke to one of her women, to whom I showed | 
the present... . . This person loaded me with compliments, and 
said she would go immediately and speak to her mistress, who 


was not yet dressed. She went to Madame, who — an- 
18 * 


210 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


grily, ‘Tell him to wait.’ I overheard her say this; I armed 
myself with patience—a very difficult thing to me—and I waited, 
without growing angry, until she had dined. As it began to: 
grow late, hunger put me in a passion which I could not resist 
at all. I cursed her a thousand times in my heart, and then 
took my leave. I went to see Cardinal Lorraine, to whom I 
presented the vase, only entreating him not to injure me with 
the king. 

“The cardinal replied that such a request was entirely unne- 
cessary, but that he would remember to speak favourably of me 
whenever the occasion should present itself; then he called his 
treasurer and whispered in his ear. The latter waited until I 
had taken leave of the cardinal, when he said to me: ‘ Come 
with me, I will give you a glass of wine.’” 

The animosity of the Duchess d’Etampes pursued Benvenuto 
Cellini unceasingly. The haughty favourite said to herself fre- 
quently, “How is this! I govern the world, and a mere 

“nobody like Cellini pays me no respéct!’? Francis I. gave the 
artist possession of the domain of the Chateau de Nesle; the 
duchess persuaded the king to instal in one of the out-buildings 
a distiller who had made her a present of some scented waters, 
considered efficacious in beautifying the complexion. Cellini 
violently opposed this invasion ; he complained of it to the king, 
who laughed at him, and signed a paper giving him unreserved 
possession of the chateau. At last, the duchess, determined to 
injure Cellini, endeavoured to represent him to the king as an 
enemy of the holy rosary, a heavy crime in those days. 

Benvenuto Cellini executed some very large works in France, 
namely, the plan for a fountain, in which the principal figure, 
representing Francis I. as Mars, was fifty-four feet high; the 
silver figure of Jupiter, estimated at a thousand gold crowns; 
the ornaments on the gate at Fontainbleau, and various others. 

Of all his performances, there remains now in France only the. 
bronze figure of anymph in bas-relief, to be seen in the Museum 
of the Louvre. 


CLAUDE BALLIN. 211 


As to his vases, salt-cellars, and other small articles of gold 
made by him, the revolution dispersed them. Nevertheless, a 
golden salt-cellar representing the earth and the ocean, is said 
to be existing at the present day, in the Belvidere at Vienna, as 
well as the four divisions of the day, made by this great artist 
for Francis I., and presented by Charles X. to the Archduke 
Ferdinand of Austria. | 

There have been few modern artists who have equalled 
Cellini in renown. He is considered as the perpetual type of 
an artist par excellence. M. du Sommerard,a competent judge, 
says of him: “ The colossal Benvenuto Cellini is as perfect in 
the execution of his gigantic bronze figures as in the microscopic 
details of the clasp on the cope of Clement VII.” This clasp 
of sculptured gold is ornamented with precious stones, and 
carved in bas-relief and fret-work. 

The reign of Louis XIV., so fertile in every species of talent, 
had many distinguished artists in this line. 

John Varin, an engraver and goldsmith, a native of Liege, 
died at Paris in 1672. He directed the stamping of medals and 
counters. 

Claude Ballin, who succeeded him in this occupation, won by 
his skill the admiration of Cardinal Richelieu, and afterwards of 
Louis XIV. It was by copying Poussin’s pictures that he im- 
proved his taste for drawing. At the age of nineteen, he exe- 
cuted four large silver vessels, upon which the four ages of the 
world were represented with admirable precision. Cardinal 
Richelieu, struck with admiration at these masterpieces of sculp- 
_ ture, purchased them and ordered four antique vases as accom- 
paniments to them. 

Ballin made silver tables for Louis XIV., stands, candelabra, 
vases, and various other articles. The first golden sword, and 
the first gorget worn by this monarch, were the work of Ballin. 
His bas-reliefs representing Pharoah’s dreams were much 
esteemed. 

All Ballin’s performances were distinguished by their infinite 


% 


212 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


beauty and delicacy. Unfortunately for the art and the artist, 
Louis XIV. was obliged to part with all these gorgeous articles 
in order to defray the expenses of the long and disastrous war 
of the succession. The revolution afterwards destroyed the few 
_ remaining memorials of this artist, existing at Paris, Saint Denis, 
and Pontoise. 

The art of working in gold and silver has nothing in common 
with the generality of mechanical arts, in which habit and ex- 
perience are sufficient to gain a man a species of excellence, and 
acquire him renown. 

_ To excel in it requires a distinct talent, as do painting, 
statuary, and architecture. It requires a knowledge of modelling 
and of drawing. The artificer in gold and silver who aspires to 
the dignity of an artist, who feels a longing to eclipse all rivals, 
must understand the principles of perspective and of architecture, 
in order to give his compositions the true proportions; to be 
able to distinguish accurately between the fitness of one form 
and another, and to avoid a superfluous use of ornament. He 
must be able to decorate them agreeably, and present to the eye 
of observers an exact imitation of nature and geometrical forms. 

But, in consequence of the valuable nature of his materials, the 
artificer in gold and silver must naturally be oppressed with 
anxiety and discouraging anticipations; for, as the beautiful 
creations of his hands increase in size and beauty under his skil- 
ful efforts, his prophetic spirit beholds them after a course of 
years melted down to shapeless masses of metal, by, the avari- 
cious cupidity of the possessors. 

In this respect, Claude Ballin received more honour than 
Benvenuto Cellini. If his works, in which he united modern 
graces to antique beauty, were sacrificed to the necessities of the 
country, they did not entirely disappear. Launay, Ballin’s 
nephew by marriage, an excellent goldsmith and skilful de- 
signer, made sketches of all his uncle’s works before their de- 
struction. 

After Ballin, we must mention Pierre Germain, a skilful 


' 


THOMAS GERMAIN. | 213 


sculptor and royal goldsmith, who died in 1682, at the age of 
thirty-five; he excelled in designing and carving. 

Colbert, the minister, who appreciated and encouraged his 
talents, intrusted to him the charge of sculpturing the allegorical 
designs on the golden plates destined as a cover to the collection 
containing the conquests of Louis XIV. All connoisseurs ad- 
mired this valuable piece of work, for which Pierre Germain 
obtained a magnificent reward. 

This artist, cut down in the flower of his age, has left behind 
him medals and counters, upon which are represented the most 
memorable events in the illustrious reign of Louis XIV. 

Pierre Germain’s great reputation was sustained with equal 
splendour by his son, Thomas Germain, who, during a long 
sojourn in Italy, made great improvements in designing and 
working in gold and silver. 

Numbers of his masterpieces remained in Italy to enrich the 
palace at Florence, when he returned to Paris. From that time 
he received commissions from every court in Europe. Louis 
XV. was so delighted with the execution of a sun which was 
presented to the cathedral at Rheims, on the day of his corona- 
tion, that he offered the artist apartments in the gallery of the 
Louvre. 

All those interested in this beautiful art agree in pronouncing 
the works of this artist to be replete with demonstrations of 
genius and good taste. 

Thomas Germain was elected sheriff (échevin) of Paris in 
1738; he died on the 14th of August, 1748. A magnificent 
church was erected at Leghorn upon a pian of his, as well as 
that of Saint Louis at Paris. 

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries produced several 
other distinguished artists of this kind, among whom were John 
Bourquet, Bricau, Pierre Barrié, John Bernhidi, Du Caurroy, 
and Aurelle Meissonnier, who died at Paris in 1750; this last 
was a painter, architect, sculptor, and worker in precious metals. 

At the time of the establishment of the consulate, there re- 


214 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS, - 


mained in France very few vestiges of the labour of the workmen 
we have mentioned. These had either been taken to other 
countries by emigrants, or melted in the crucibles of the reign 
of terror. The new government gave new life to this art, so 
indispensable to the majesty of courts. 

It reappeared with the magnificence which distinguished it in 
preceding ages. A beautiful service, executed by a jeweller 
named Augustus, attracted much attention at the ceremony of 
Napoleon’s coronation. 

John Baptist Claudé Odiot, the same who, on the 30th of 
March, 1814, defended Paris with so much valour at the head of 
the second division of the National Guards, the same whom Horace 
Vernet has immortalized in his splendid painting of the battle 
of Clichy, appeared, under the empire, the worthy successor of 
Ballin, Launay, and the two’ Germains. His labours soon 
spread his reputation over all Europe. At all the exhibitions 
of the products of French industry, he constantly obtained the 
prize of the first order. He executed numerous table-services, 
as remarkable for the exquisiteness of their finish as for the 
beauty of their forms. 

Amongst M. Odiot’s celebrated performances, which raised 
him to the rank of one of the first in his profession, at the 
present day, we must not omit to mention the magnificent toilet- 
table, and complete apparatus belonging to it, valued at 
8,000,000 francs, presented by the city of Paris to the Empress 
Maria Louisa, in 1810; the cradle of the King of Rome, also 
presented by the city ‘of Paris, in 1811; the table-service for 
the Polish Princess Braniska, valued at 3,000,000 francs; a 
breakfast-set of most beautiful execution, presented to the 
Duchess of Berri at the birth of the Duke of Bordeaux ; an ink- 
stand representing Apollo and the nine Muses, which Louis 
XVIII. sent to Pope Pius VIII., and which was the admiration 
of all Roman artists; a virgin of silver, for Notre Dame at 
Paris; a silver statue of Henry IY. as a child, after Bosio; and 


e 


ODIOT. 215 





finally, a magnificent table-service valued at 800,000 ge. for 
Ferdinand I., King of Naples. 

The Baron Charles Dupin speaks in the highest terms of 
Odiot, senior. ‘“* His performances,” remarks he, “ are beautiful 
reproductions of the antique vases, and are not less remarkable 
tor the wise and skilful adjustment of forms and figures. This 
art, perfect in proportion to the concealment of the junctures, 
unites elegance to solidity, to a degree which renders it of royal 
value.” | 

“The artist of whom we speak,” adds M. Dupin, “ entertained 
the fortunate idea of executing bronze models of his most re- 
markable works. He presented this collection to the Museum 
of the Chambre des Pairs. ~ If Benvenuto Cellini had had the 
same foresight, and the same generosity for Rome or for 
Florence, his country and the Medici Museum might have pre- 


216 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


served the much to be regretted masterpieces, of which we have 
now but meagre descriptions.” 

With the exception of the Cross of Honour, which he so well 
deserved, and which Louis XVIII. placed upon his breast in 
1814, M. Odiot, senior, received from the government none of 
the honourable distinctions so often conferred upon unworthy 
favourites. But, with merit such as his, there were many con- 
solations for a like exclusion. His fame as an artist, and the 
gold medals decreed to him as testimonials of profound admira- 
tion, were infinitely preferable to court fayours. 





CHAPTER XLIV. 


SEVRES CHINA, &c. 


) eS: a casual mention of the royal 
\’ porcelain manufactory at Sevres. We 
} will now return to this subject, and 
give an account of various important 
improvements. 

“Tt was at Sevres,” says M. Cape- 
Ws figue, “ that Colbert established a vast 
MRA tere where antique vases were modelled, and Chinese 
and German urns imitated; the best paintings copied, hunting- 
scenes, battles, and satan flowers of brilliant colours. Fifty 
workmen were convoked from various parts of Europe; every- 
thing was reduced to rules, and experiments tried upon the 
earth and water used. The Sevres china acquired a great repu- 
tation’ over all Europe; the king sent presents of it to every 
court; and it became a gracious offering at the conclusion of a 
treaty. The Sevres manufactory was a subject of pride to 
Louis XIV.” 7 

Napoleon betrayed no less solicitude for the prosperity of this 
fine establishment, the direction of which he intrusted to the 
learned mineralogist Brongniard. In 1804, the fabrication of 
soft porcelain was entirely given up at Sevres. Nevertheless, 
it must be confessed, as M. Brongniard very judiciously re- 
marked, it required more research and more genius to compose 
this artificial porcelain by complicated and delicate processes, 
than to obtain the hard porcelain, which is the result of the sim- 
ple mixture of two natural materials, kaolin and feldspar. 

After this reform, the new director of the Sevres manufactory 


applied himself particularly to the composition of a porce- 
( 





218 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


lain, giving it a whiteness and delicacy never previously ob- 
tained. In 1806, the Sevres porcelain was embellished by the 
superb green chromium, a metal discovered by Vauquelin. 

To M. Brongniard’s wise direction were owing the improve- 
ments made in the chemical mode of painting on glass, a new 
style of painting, which is done by mixing the metallic oxides 
with a flux composed of glass with lead. 

It was under the empire that historical subjects were first re- 
presented upon porcelain, and especially upon very large vases. 
The painter, Van-Os, was called to France, in 1811, to paint 
flowers upon porcelain, and in this branch of art he was dis- 
tinguished as much for the richness of his shading, as the bril- 
liancy of his colouring. The fine paintings upon porcelain by 
Drolling, Lauglacé, George Constantin, and above all, Madame 
Jaquotot, are well known. 

M. Charles Dupin speaks as follows :— 

‘“‘ By means of the new method of painting upon poreelain, 
perfected as it now is, the finest masterpieces of the greatest 
masters, which are liable to decay in the course of a few centu- 
ries, may be copied and consigned to posterity in a most beauti- 
ful and imperishable form. Mineralogy and chemistry have lent 
their aid to render this execution less expensive, more faithful, 
and more delicate than mosaic imitations.” 

The art of sculpture has also been of great advantage to the 
manufactory at Sevres, as regards beauty of form and figure. 
M. Fragonard, senior, to whom we owe such admirable ceilings, 
_ has contributed in no small degree to this, as our annual exhibi- 
tions fully attest. 

In fact, the porcelain manufactory at Sevres owes numerous 
highly valuable compositions to the talents of this skilful artist. 
It is much to be regretted that private establishments have 
not imitated the royal manufactory in this respect. It is only 
by employing artists of undisputed merit that France has gained 
her great superiority in this art over all Europe... ~ 
~ Nevertheless, the efforts made at Sevres have provoked a for- 


SLAUGHTER-HOUSES. 219 


tunate emulation. M. Dihl, a skilful porcelain manufacturer, 
obtained the gold medal for the excellence and beauty of his 
performances. He had already received, in 1798, one of the 
twelve rewards, of the first rank, for paintings on porcelain 
with colours of his own composition, which experienced no 
change during the process of baking. This celebrated manu- 
facturer also discovered a means of overcoming the difficulties 
attendant upon the composition and preservation of the colours 
appropriate to painting on pieces of glass of eighteen decimetres 
in length and breath. This operation required a distinct and 
peculiar process of application. He painted the same picture 
upon two surfaces of glass, so that in putting one over the other, 
one covered the other, and by that means doubled oe of 
the outline, and the depth of the colouring. 

In 1810, the Paris authorities issued a decree for the erection 
of five public slaughter-houses, to take the place of the nume- 
rous private establishments of this kind belonging to the butchers. 
This was of great advantage to the city as regards health and 
“safety. In order to enable the reader to understand. all the 
benefits of this innovation, I will borrow from Mercier’s Tableau 
de Paris, a detailed account of the inconveniences and the dan- 
gers presented by the former slaughter-houses. 

“They are not outside the city, nor at its extremities, but in 
the midst of it. Blood streams through the streets, coagulates 
under your feet, and dyes your boots red, whilst mournful low- 
ings salute your ears. A young ox is thrown down, his horned 
head fastened to the ground with ropes; a heavy club. breaks 
his skull; a large knife makes a deep gash in his throat; his 
blood, which smokes, pours forth in volumes as he dies. But 
his groans, his muscles agitated by violent convulsions, his strug- 
gles, his gasps, his last efforts to escape from his dreadful doom, 
all speak the violence of his anguish, and the agony of his suf- 
‘ ferings. His heart palpitates with fearful rapidity, his eyes be- 
come dull and languishing. -Oh! who can contemplate all this 


220 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


with tranquillity! Who can listen to the bitter sighs of a crea- 
ture immolated to man! 

“Sometimes the ox, stunned by the blow, but not felled, 
bursts his bonds, and becoming furious, makes his escape from 
his murderers, and attacks, as enemies, all whom he encounters. 
Spreading terror as he advances, he rushes on, every one flying 
in affright before the animal, who, the day before, entered the 
slaughter-house with slow and tractable steps. Women and 
children who happen to be in his path, are liable to be wounded, 
and also to meet with brutal treatment from the half-savage 
butchers in angry pursuit of their victim. 

*‘ These butchers are men of ferocious and sanguinary aspect ; 
their arms are bare; their throat swelled by the predominance 
of violent emotions; their eyes inflamed, and their dress a mix- 
ture of blood and dirt; a knotty and massive stick is generally 
to be seen in their hands, a weapon much in request in their fre- 
quent scuffles and combats with each other. Misconduct is 
punished with greater severity in them than in men of any other 
calling. This is necessary in order to repress their habitual fero- 
city ; and the custom has the sanction of experience.” 

Such was the state of the slaughter-houses until it was deemed- 
expedient to remove these infectious establishments, the scenes. 
of so many disgusting spectacles, to the outskirts of the city ; 
and five slaughter-houses, on an enlarged scale, were erected in 
the neighbourhood of some of the Barrieres, and which are 
known by the names of the Montmartre Slaughter-house, the 
Menilmontant, the Grenelle, the Monceaux, and the Villejuif. 

Thither are conveyed all the oxen, calves, and sheep destined 
for Paris consumption. The buildings are in airy situations; 
their dimensions are in proportion to the wants of the diverse 
sections of the city to which they respectively belong. Their 
construction, perfectly appropriate to the special destination of 
this new species of edifice, does honour to the intelligence and 
taste of the architect, M. Happe, who introduced into these 
monuments of public utility a vast, excellent, and commodious 


SLAUGHTER-HOUSES. - 221 


distribution of parts, without destroying the external harmony 
and beauty as a whole. 

In these immense slaughter-houses, the butchers slay all the 
cattle purchased, and divide it into portions for daily consump- 
tion, separate the hides, and prepare the tallow for sale. The 
vast number of animals killed in each of these five establish- 
ments, is of great advantage for various chemical purposes; for 
the facility in procuring gelatine, Prussian blue, strong glue, &c., 
is of course very great. 

‘In these establishments,” says the author of the Wouveau 
Dictionnaire des Origines, “the useful has been allied to the 
agreeable. Each separate edifice is composed of several square 
buildings, all nearly upon the same plan: The enclosure is 
provided with gratings, which prevent the dangers attendant 
upon the escape of any animal. Outside isa high wall enclosing 
all the buildings. The square buildings, where the animals are 
slaughtered, are divided into equal spaces, the number of which 
corresponds with ‘he number of butchers in Paris, who, in ac- © 
cordance with the rules of the establishment, have each his own 
echaudowr. Every echaudoir has two doors opening upon courts 
in opposite directions. One door is for the entrance of the living 
animals, the other for their exit, dead. In these echaudoirs, or 
slaughtering-rooms, are tubs to receive the blood, which is 
kept for various uses, and hydrants affording a plentiful sup- 
ply of water for washing purposes, and which is kept up by 
means of ingenious steam-engines. In other parts of the build- 
ing sheep-folds have been ‘established, equal in number to the 
echaudoirs. ‘There are, also, stables destined for the oxen and 
calves before they are killed. Other distinct departments are 
assigned to the melting of tallow, and the preparation of various 
other animal substances. ‘The director, and other persons em- 
ployed in the establishment, reside in the principal building. 
Finally, large well-aired garrets are in the upper stories, where 
the butchers deposite the skins for drying, until they can sell 
them. | 


ig” 


CHAPTER XLV. 
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS. 


7 MINENT and well-tried men, faithful exe- 
cutors of the master’s idea, have directed the 
_ great ensemble of public and private improve- 
ments. To Chaptal, succeeded, in the ca- 
) pacity of minister, M. de Champagny, Duke 

Vkvetteadddsm Of Cadore, who was in turn succeeded by 
Count Montalivet, in 1809. 

This last-mentioned minister displayed superior intelligence, 
as well as zeal for the manufacturing reputation of France. 
Following the emperor’s example, he encouraged and brought 
into notice the authors of new discoveries, and all the enterprising 
manufacturers of his age.. His actions were the offspring of the 
purest and most enlightened patriotism. It was his ambition to 
contribute to the progress of improvement in the arts, and to 
render his:life memorable by real services to his country. 

It would be difficult to enumerate here all the great works 
begun and carried on under the administration of Montalivet. 
Canals were dug, roads made, bridges built, and monuments of 
every description undertaken: such are the remembrances of 
his usefal career, to be seen in all parts of France. The em- 
bellishment of Paris was a subject which interested him deeply ; 
it was, in fact, the principal object of his indefatigable zeal and 
activity.. It is well known, that Napoleon wished to render 
this great city the finest of European capitals. His minister 
spared no pains in seconding his views. Several parts of the 
town were rendered healthy and agreeable, which were hitherto 
entirely. wanting in both those qualities; new fountains sprang 
from. the ground in many of the public squares; the large 


slaughter-houses, as we have just remarked, took the place of 
3 (222) 





COLUMN IN THE PLACE VENDOME. 223 


the ignoble and disgusting butchers’ establishments ;. triumphal 
arches, magazines, and marts for trade were erected ; our mag- 
nificent Bourse rose from its foundation; and the quats, whose 
great and picturesque length is so much admired by strangers, 
were planned by M. Montalivet. 

In the midst ef all these diverse labours, and of many others 
no less interesting, this minister, endowed with extraordinary 
capacity, and powers of mind which enabled him to grasp the 
whole of an extensive plan, without omitting any of its minor 
details, did much for the country, by his vigilant care in provi- 
ding for the sustenance of the French troops, that important and 
difficult part of the administration. “This minister,” says 
Tissot, “ understood all the various duties of his elevated office, 
and acted in all with the same judicious, penetrating, and econo- 
mica! spirit. His circulars, his daily correspondence with the 
authorities, the projects for decrees proposed by him, and after- 
wards taken as laws, now form the administrative jurisprudence 
of the ministry. His descriptions of the internal condition of 
France during the brilliant period of the empire, will remain as 

vast and faithful portraits of an epoch, when the genius of, one 
great man created, commanded, and obtained prodigies. 

On the 15th of August, 1810, the solemn inauguration of the 
column in the Place Vendome took place, amid the joyous ac- 
clamations of the people. This gigantic monument to the glory 
of the grande armee, was begun on the 25th of August, 1806, 
under the direction of Lepére and Gondouin, architects of the 
first order. The cannon taken from the Austrians in the bril- 
jiant and rapid campaign of 1805, furnished the brass for this 
noble column, weighing no less than 900,000 kilograms. 

It is an undeniable fact that the column in the Place Ven- 
d°me isa majestic relic of the warlike genius of Napoleon’s 
epoch. It is an imitation in brass of the celebrated Trajan’s 
pillar at Rome. It is two hundred and eighteen feet high, in- 
cluding the pedestal, which is twenty-one and a half feet in 
height. Its diameter is twelve feet, and the whole surface, in- 


224 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


cluding the pedestal, the capital, and the top, is covered Be § 
plates of brass, ornamented with bas-reliefs. Those on the pe- 
destal represent military scenes; the others, which ascend in a 
spiral line to the summit of the monument, represent the history 
of the victorious campaign, m honour of which the column was 
erected. | 

The foot is surrounded and ornamented by two hundred and 
sixty-four plates, so artfully joined as to present one united sur- 
face. As to the idea of surrounding the stone core of the 
column with brass, it is said to have been done at Constantinople 
during the lower empire. It has been complained that the alloy 
is not good.. The complaint is a just one; for the secret of this 
composition, understood by the ancients, and rediscovered under 
Louis XIV., defied the efforts of the founders of the column in 
the Place Vendome. There is too much pewter in the lower 
part, and not enough towards the top; which necessarily causes 
a very evident disparity of colour. 

The bas-reliefs on the pedestal represent the arms and cos- 
tumes of various nations conquered by Napoleon. Formerly, the 
ciphers of the Emperors of Austria and Russia figured upon the 
shakos or caps worn by our hussars and infantry, and upon 
other articles of dress; but peace having been concluded with 
Russia before the erection of the monument, Alexander’s ciphers 
disappeared, and those of the Emperor Francis alone were 
retained. 

A faithful imitation of Trajan’s Column, that of the Place 
Vendome is of the Tuscan order. The plinth supports a railing, 
from within which elevates itself a sort of cippus, surrounded by 
a hemisphere; this is the continuation of the column. The 
stylobatum, of white marble, having become damaged in conse- 
quence of bad weather, it was replaced in 1835, by a new one 
of Corsican granite, which is not composed of several steps as 
was the other. It isa sort of socle or plinth, apparently of a 
single piece, so well are the blocks united. Three steps cut in 
the marble lead to the entrance. 





COLUMN IN THE PLACE VENDOME. 225 


This column has undergone many political revolutions since 
its erection. A monument to victory, it experienced in 1814 
the outrages of defeat. The troops of the allied powers which 
invaded France, tore down the colossal statue of Napoleon with 
violence; a statue which, from the summit of its triumphal 
pillar, seemed to rule over the whole world. By insulting the 
image of our hero, these barbarous soldiers hoped in some sort 
to pull the living man from his pedestal as easily as they had 
torn him from his throne ; but posterity has undertaken to prove 
the folly of such an attempt. Time, which destroys all things, 
not only respects legitimate glory, but sanctions it, strengthens 
it, and transmits it from one generation to another. 

It was impossible to ask at the hands of government the res- 
toration of the statue of a man looked upon as a usurper. But 
after the revolution of July, government considered it a duty, 
and every one knows with how good a grace it was accomplished. 
The statue of the modern Charlemagne again stands upon its 
column. But he is no longer as at first, a half-naked warrior 
crowned with laurels, his right hand leaning on his sword, his 
left bearing a globe surmounted by victory. Now, Napoleon, the 
man of the age, is represented in a manner conformable to histo- 
rical truth. In accordance with true good taste, the hero is 
clothed in his favourite costume, in which he won so’ many 
battles, and which has become so celebrated since Béranger has 
made it the subject of one of his most popular songs. ‘‘ Now,’’ 
as remarks the author of a recently published work (Etudes 
physiologiques sur les grandes Metropoles de l’ Europe occiden- 
tale), Gaeton Niepoiré, ‘‘ the Napoleon of the Place Vendéme is 
the same Napoleon in the cocked hat and gray cloak, who is so 
well known to all men, of all ranks and all capacities. It is he, 
in his dress, in his bearing, and even in his glance, which seems 
a continuation of one uninterrupted idea.” 

Let us now cast our eyes upon some of our manufactories ; 
we shall find that they have not remained stationary during the 
empire, 


296 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


. Owing’ to the fortunate introduction of machinery at Sedan 
anid Abbeville, great improvements were made in the articles 
produced. Great advantages resulted in particular from the 
substitution of mechanism for the old system of hand-labour ; 
besides'increased beauty in the stuffs,economy was an important 
result gained. 

Amiens, that fine city, watered by the Somme, and which is 
so justly proud of its magnificent cathedral, the most admirable 
religious monument in France, next deserves mention for her 
eassimeres, which bid defiance to those of other countries. Her 
cotton velvets merit equal praise. It was at Amiens, that M. 
Gensse Duminy introduced the fabrication of the patent cord, 
a material formerly entirely monopolized by England, and sold 
there at an exorbitant price. 

_ After the establishment of the Jouy manufactory, other similar 
ones were erected in the department of the Upper Rhine, for 
printed cottons ; thus spreading ease and comfort throughout the 
country, and insuring results of a most fortunate nature. In 
1806, the committee foretold a brilliant career to M. Mulhau- 
sén’s manufactures, and gave M. Dolfus Mieg the silver medal 
for beauty of colouring and design; adding: ‘* All those em- 
ployed in the fabrication of the Mulhausen stuffs may behold in 
this medal'a proof of the high opinion entertained by the com- 
mittee, who have examined their stuffs with care, and pronounced 
them beautiful, excellent, and worthy of admiration.” After- 
wards, five manufacturers in this same town obtained the gold 
medal. ; 

With the re-establishment of luxury, lace of all kinds came 
again into favour, and gave rise to the celebrated manufactories 
at Alencon, Chantilly, and Brussels, which took the first rank ; 
and Le Puy, Arras, Valenciennes, Douai, and various other 
towns. Elbeuf, from the very beginning, gained a great name 
for her productions, which were brought down to the level of 
moderate fortunes, and increased in beauty without a propor- 
tionate rise in price. Flanders and Courtrai maintained their 


a 


x 


WHITE SILK. 227 


former renown, whilst the cities of Cotes du Nord, La Sarthe, 
and La Mayenne, were distinguished by the strength, durability, 
and low prices of their goods. Cambrai, Valenciennes, and 
Saint Quentin, so remarkable for its Hotel de Ville, continued 
to fabricate lawns and batistes in great perfection. This last- 
mentioned town receives a fortieth part of the cotton annually 
imported into France, and has established numerous workshops 
where the. machinery is made, and now employs nearly seven 
hundred workmen. 

We must not omit to mention the successful efforts to intro- 
duce into France the worm which produces white silk. 

Formerly, the only silk-worm known in France was that 
which produces the yellow cocoon; but this could not be made 
into white silk, except by submitting it to operations by which 
its strength was materially diminished. Roard, a manufacturer 
and chemist, made great improvements in the art of bleaching 
yellow silk. But the white colour obtained by his process faded 
by degrees, and acquired a yellowish tint. 

The only means of obviating this difficulty was to import 
the other species of worm from China; a worm which produces 
silk of a perfect whiteness, and which from its origin is called 
sina. Some attempts had been previously made to introduce this 
worm into France; but the troubles of the revolution had in- 
terrupted them, and the project was abandoned. 

The imperial government, enlightened by the advice of the 
consulting committee of arts and manufactures, brought it again 
into notice, and offered rewards to those who would undertake 
the propagation of this precious species of silk-worm. About 
the same time (1808,) the society for the encouragement of the 
arts offered a prize of two thousand francs to the proprietor who 
would undertake this new office on the largest scale. The 
results were of the most advantageous kind. From that time, 
the cultivation of this valuable chrysalis extended more and 
more; the silk produced is sold at a higher price than that of 
the ordinary yellow cocoons, but is nevertheless much sought 


228 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


after, and great encouragement is afforded to those who have 
undertaken the care of this new species of silk-worm. 

It cannot be denied that silk-weaving owes its many modern 
improvements to the new machines invented in the beginning of 
thiscentury. ‘‘ Those in previous use,” as the Baron Charles 
Dupin remarks, in his work entitled Progres de l’ Industrie 
Francaise, “ were inconvenient on account of their being so very 
complicated. They were provided with numerous strings and 
pedals; they required the labour of several individuals to keep 
them in motion. Those employed in this wearisome occupation 
were principally young women and children, who during the 
whole day were obliged to remain in painful attitudes, by which 
their limbs often became deformed. Indeed, some contracted 
mortal diseases.” 

All these dangerous effects disappeared upon the invention of 
Jacquard’s mechanism ; the name of which is at the present day 
so justly popular, as we have before had occasion to remark 
when we gave a description of the services of this eminently 
vseful man. 

Among the inventions of machinery useful in facilitating and 
perfecting the weaving of silk, we must mention that of the me- 
chanician Briard, of Bouén, an ingenious machine, which 
received the name of Briarde, from that of its inventor. 








CHAPTER XLVI. 


BRONZE ORNAMENTS. 


URING the first years of the empire, the 
) art of casting and moulding bronze was 
g¥\» of valuable assistance to luxury, by pro- 
viding ornaments for rooms and table-ser- 
vices. Itis not here necessary to speak 
of the great and bold labours, of which 
/ : Jean Balthazar Keller possessed the se- 
cret, when, with metal weighing eighty thousand pounds, he 
made, in one single operation, the magnificent statue of Louis 
XIV., which was erected in the Place Vendome, and the fine 
statue called the Knife-grinder, now to be seen in the garden 
of the Tuileries. 

The revolution, by dispersing and scattering all large fortunes, 
opened the way to new improvements in the art of making 


groups and statues of bronze. This substance, almost equal in 
20 : 229) 





230 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


beauty to gold and silver, for ornaments, appeared to the arti- 
ficer, and many of his economical customers, far preferable on 
another account; and it was often brought into rivalship with 
porcelain and crystal; and on tables, in saloons, boudoirs, and 
other apartments, bronze, in various beautiful forms, added to 
the sumptuousness and the elegance already displayed. 

The day for large statues of bronze, placed in the vestibules 
of fine houses, has gone by. But that of graceful little minia- 
ture figures of all kinds and varieties is now at its height. 

The skilful and modest Antonin Moine has contributed much 
to the beauty of this fashionable art. 

It is much to be deplored that, in bronze ornaments, there are 
many wide aberrations frora the direct road of good taste. For 
instance, the makers of vases, lustres, and clocks follow the same 
unvarying design in all; and the heavy branches so ungracefully 
placed upon the eons candelabra, which were once so slender 
and graceful, deserve reprehension as well as the epergnes, in 
which the eternal basket of flowers is supported by the eternal 
female figures. Nevertheless, thanks.to the improvements of 
several skilful founders, and French artists, our ornaments of 
bronze are considered superior to those of all other nations. 
This superiority is principally due to the beauty of our sculp- 
ture, and the elegance of the forms after which they are mo- - 
delled. This important point, upon which so much depends, de- 
serves the attention of all our workers in bronze, who are jea- 
lous of the prosperity of their admirable art. 

Until now, no country has been able to compare with France 
in respect to working in bronze. Paris has borne the palm, and 
has never feared the rivalship of any other city. But let her 
beware! carelessness and bad taste may cause her insensibly to 
lose this superiority. 

The artist who, under the imperial government, best sustain- 
ed the reputation of our bronzes, was indisputably the great 
Ravrio. It will be seen hereafter that this was by no means his 
only claim to the eulogium of posterity. : 


® 


RAVRIO 231 


Antoine André Ravrio, born at Paris, in 1759, was the son 
of a master-founder attached to the Riesener family, so well 
known for their improvements in the liberal and manufacturing 
arts. Intending to follow the trade of a bronze-gilder, he was 
anxious to obtain accurate knowledge in every branch of his 
art. He had learned to cast under his father’s direction; he 
designed and modelled at the academy, and studied carving un- 
der the best masters. By this means, the perfection of every 
thing he undertook spread his reputation over all Europe. His 
performances are distinguished for the exquisite purity of the 
design; the noble simplicity ; the ingenuity of composition; the 
fine imitation of the beautiful forms-of antiquity, and a degree 
of good taste which never failed him. 

To his remarkable skill in this art, Ravrio-united a vast fund 
of information, an amiable disposition, vivacity, and the best 
qualities of the heart. In his leisure hours, it was his delight 
to cultivate a taste for writing light verses; and the happy in- 
spirations of his merry muse assure us that if he had been able 
to devote more time to his graceful lyrical compositions, he might 
easily have taken his place among our most distinguished poets 
in that line. Almost all the pieces which compose his two vol- 
umes of poetry, display ease, grace, humour, and good sense, 
united with wit and feeling. 

But let us leave the poet and return to the artist, in order to 
mention a trait which does him no less honour than the most 
magnificent productions of his art. 

Before closing his laborious and brilliant career, Ravrio,.actu- 
ated by a tender solicitude for his former fellow-workmen, offer- 
ed a prize for the invention of any process for preserving gilders 
from the dangers inseparable from using mercury. 

The following account by M. Charles Dupin will plitée 
Ravrio’s conduct in its true light :— 

“ A celebrated artist,” says he, “ who cultivated the arts un- 
der two different epochs (for he was born in 1759, and died in 
1814), M. Ravrio, produced first the bronze ornaments in the 


232 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


style of Louis XV., and afterwards the classic ornaments in 
vogue during the empire. He terminated forty years of labour 
by an action which may be termed an improvement in the arts, 
and a benefit to humanity. He bequeathed, by his will, a legacy 
of 3,000 francs to the author of a process for putting a stop to 
the terrible consequences of gilding metals. The old method 
brought on, itis true, dreadful infirmities, and premature death. 
A short time afterwards the prize was gained by M. D’Arcet, 
now a member of the Academy of Sciences. His ingenious pro- 
cess obviated entirely the mercurial emanations, formerly so fatal 
to gilders.”’ Sg : 

Unfortunately for themselves, the workmen are too apt to 
neglect the advantages arising from M. D’Arcet’s invention. 
Notwithstanding the law on this subject, and the obligation im- 
posed upon gilders to construct forges which would not be in- 
jurious to the health, some of them persist in following the old 
method of gilding. Numerous journeymen gilders are in this 
manner exposed to dreadful accidents, and incur mortal diseases. 
M. Gaultier de Claubry relates that, fifteen years ago, three 
workmen perished at Turin, whilst employed in gilding a piece 
of work too large to be placed under a chimney. 

In order to give an idea of the bronzes of Ravrio, we may 
here instance a rich branched candlestick, which held twenty- 
two candles, and was beautifully gilded and chased. The statue 
was three feet in height. The height of the whole was seven 
feet. Ravrio’s performances of this kind are very good speci- 
mens of the taste prevalent during Napoleon’s reign. 

At the same period, another Parisian, Michel Brézin, a skil- 
ful founder, rendered eminent services to the artillery of our vic- 
torious armies. From his foundry issued the greater number of 
the cannon before which the Austrians, Prussians, and Rus- 
sians trembled. Brézin succeeded in boring cannons placed in 
boats, in front of the. Quai des Augustins.. This operation was 
performed by means of an ingenious mechanism, set in motion 
by the action of the water. Afterwards, this industrious, me- 


BREZIN. 233 


chanician brought this invention to a greater degree of perfec- 
tion. He acquired an immense fortune as much by his efforts 
as by the fortunate concurrence of circumstances; byt, what is 
more worthy of the admiration of mankind, he wished to dis- 
pose of his property in favour of the workmen who had assisted 
him in gaining it. Such are the very words of his will. In 
order to realize this benevolent idea, which presented itself to 
him rather late, he left, at his death, in 1828, a capital of nearly 
5,000,000 francs for the establishment of a hospital for the re- 
ception of three hundred old men, of sixty years of age, who 
had been employed in any one of the trades more or less con- 
nected with that in which he had been so successful. This 
building, in accordance with Brézin’s express wishes, is called 
the Hospital of Gratitude, and is on the estate of the founder, 
called Le Petit l’Etang, in the district of Garches, circuit of 
Versailles. There, in a pleasant and healthy situation, three 
hundred old men are provided with all the comforts of life, and 
end their days happily. 

*‘ Honour,” says M. Charles Durozoir, “to the man whose 
last thoughts tended to the conception and developement of this 
idea. Such are some of the wonders of science. Through its 
means a simple mechanic may, like Louis XIV., found an Inva- 
lides. The workmen for whose benefit this hospital is designed, 
are smiths, locksmiths, and various workers in iron, copper, 
wood, &c.” 








CHAPTER XLVII. 
AGRICULTURE. 


T might naturally be supposed, that, during 
Napoleon’s warlike reign, agriculture was 
neglected; but this was by no means the 
case. Active and intelligent agriculturists 
were zealously employed in putting into 
practice new methods of improving the pro- 
duce of the fields, and spreading ease among 
the rural population. In several parts of France, especially 
Flanders, Artois, Picardy, Normandy, L’Ile de France, and 
Alsace, flourishing farms existed in a state of great prosperity, 
thanks to the improvements of men whom we shall hereafter 
have occasion to notice. It was impossible to enter one of these 
farm-yards without at once recognising the salutary effects of 
order. They generally presented a large square court, from the 
midst of which arose pyramids of logs of wood, and high stacks 


of straw surrrounded by stables, sheds, and “other buildings, 
(234) 





IMPROVEMENTS IN AGRICULTURE. 235 


under which were ranged the wagons, carts, harrows, rollers, and 
other farming instruments. Not far off stood the pig-sty and 
poultry-yard; at the entrance of which stood the vigilant cock, 
like a sentinel. ) 

In the centre of all proudly arose the dwelling-house of the 
family. How different from the farms in Berri and Languedoc! 
A square piece of fallow ground without enclosure, a. meager 
building, of which the lower story was used asa stable and gra- 
nary, and the upper served as a habitation for the family of both 
sexes; around this almost impenetrable cave lay heaps of rub- 
bish and dirt, or pools of stagnant water, in which ducks and 
geese endeavoured to find some slight amusement, whilst a few 
starving fowls dug up the earth with their beaks. 

At the time when the decennial prizes were offered (1810), 
honourable mention was made of M. Bonneau, a distinguished 
- agriculturist of Brosse (Indre), for the experimental farm which 
he had established, and where he had created every thing him- 
self. In this farm, which was undoubtedly the first model farm, 
nothing was done upon the old plam merely because it was. the 
old plan; science directed all the experiments; new manure 
made according to chemical rules and an intimate acquaintance 
with the laws of vegetation, was used. By a just application 
of geometry and the laws of motion to the plough, he obtained 
economy of time and great perfection in tillage. Experiments 
were daily made upon the means of improving the ‘race of sheep, 
and naturalizing those from other countries, All tended to the 
increase of the revenue of the farm. Artificial meadows pro- 
duced a twofold harvest, at the same time that they gave the 
soil the necessary rest, if a cereal harvest were desired in future. 

Establishments of this nature have in a great degree contri- 
buted to the rapid improvements made of late years in agricul- 
tural instruments, such as ploughs, harrows, turnip-cutters, 
extirpators, and even the simple cart, used for the transportation 
of fruit, vegetables, and other articles, to a neighbouring market. 


236 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Many other ameliorations will fall under our notice when it be- 
comes our duty to describe the model farm of Roville. 

During the wars of the republic and the empire, which had in 
a measure deprived France of all colonial supplies, indigo be- 
came very rare and very: expensive; so that it was found 
necessary to give up the use of it, and resort to the cultivation 
of woad, a biennial plant, with a hairy branching stem, which 
grows to the height of three feet. ‘‘ A long time before the dis- 
covery of indigo,’”’ says Chaptal, ‘‘ woad was cultivated in all 
countries. It made excellent fodder for cattle during the 
winter. But it was less cultivated as fodder, than as an element 
of the only solid blue colour known before the seventeenth cen- 
tury. ‘Two hundred thousand bales of woad were annually ex- 
ported from Bordeaux for dyeing purposes.” 

At the first introduction of indigo into Europe, every one 
foresaw the injury this Indian plant was about to cause to woad ; 
for when divested of all foreign matter, indigo presents about 
seventy-five times more colouring matter than the same weight 
of woad. Henry IV., who foresaw the entire abandonment of 
the cultivation of woad, which was one of the principal branches 
of French agriculture, determined to arrest the progress of the 
evil whilst it was yet new; and by an edict of 1609, forbade, 
under penalty of death, the use of the false and pernicious In- 
dian drug. The German, English, and Dutch governments 
imitated this severity, although the interest felt by them in this 
subject was much less in reality than that of France; but the 
prohibition was only continued for a short time in England. 

The time arrived when Henry IV.’s anticipations were fully 
justified. Our vessels, kept in port by fear of the English, who 
were masters of the seas, were unable any longer to go in search 
of indigo, and we had nothing but woad to take its place. In 
this state of privation and distress, the French government ap- 
plied to her learned men for a means of procuring from our own 
soil the resources we had hitherto obtained in America. Before 
long we succeeded in obtaining, from woad, indigo of a superior 


THE OPTICIAN. 237 


quality. Three great establishments were erected at the public 
expense, to carry on this branch of art. These establishments 
prospered for several years, but were given up during the 
political changes in 1815. 

A skilful dyer of Albi, named Rouques, maintained -for ten 
years an establishment of this kind by his own unassisted efforts, 
and made use of no other indigo than that which he himself 
prepared with woad. | 

The optician’s art, which originated in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, according to some, with Alexander Spina of Pisa, and 
according to others, with the celebrated monk, Roger Bacon, is 
a valuable one to science, and a useful one to humanity. Im- 
proved upon by Metius, Galileo, Corneille Drebbel, Repler, 
Newton, and other illustrious men, it has been cultivated in 
France with great success since the beginning of the empire, 
and now forms one of the finest and most interesting branches 
of national industry. 

This art is not, as many persons ignorantly think, a common 
and vulgar one. It requires the skill of an artist combined with 
the capacities of a learned man. Much more is necessary than 
mere sleight of hand, to execute the instruments used by phi- 
losophers, astronomers, engineers, and mariners, in their respec- 
tive professions. ‘ There is, perhaps,”’ says a learned man, “no 
vocation which calls for more varied information than that of 
the optician. He must understand filing, turning, soldering, 
glass-blowing, polishing surfaces if need be, let them be plane, 
convex, or concave, and giving them the proper curve. Having 
in all ages been in close contact with mathematicians, astrono- 
_ mers, and other men of science, his profession has necessarily 
elevated itself above that of other workers in glass, metals, &c. 
Indeed, in some cases, his discoveries have given him a reputa- 
tion equal to that of the most distinguished men.” 


CHAPTER XLVIII. 


CHEVALLIER. 


T is our delight to signalize the brilliant 
efforts of one of those privileged artists, 
who, during the empire, spread his re- 
nown throughout the whole. civilized 
world. There are, in fact, few people 

i who have not heard of the engineer 

Chevallier, of his celebrated thermometer, 
and of his exact and interesting meteorological observations. 

Jean Gabriel Augustin Chevallier, born at Mantes (Seine et 

Oise) in 1778, betrayed at a very early age a decided bent for 
the art which he afterwards brought to so great a degree of 
perfection. He received his first ideas of this nature, so to 

speak, upon the knees of his maternal grandfather, Francois 

Trochon, an excellent engineer and optician, and a lieutenant- 
counsellor of the king at the election of Mantes and of Meulan. 

The progress made by the young Chevallier was very rapid ; 
but, ambitious to distinguish himself in his career, he neglected 
nothing which could contribute to enlarge the circle of his ae- 
quaintances among those who would assist the developement of 
his genius, and assign him a place among opticians of the first 
order. Thus, he studied the elements of meteorological science 
under the learned Javinien Leblond, professor of mathematics, 
who honoured him with his friendship. Afterwards, he studied 
the difficult art of constructing mathematical and philosophical 
instruments with precision: in this he was guided and directed 
by the wise instructions of the celebrated Assier-Perricat. 

This was in some sort, a national victory, for this branch of art 

had previously been entirely monopolized by Italian artists in 

France. 





(238) _ 


CHEVALLIER. 239 


1 


The illustrious astronomer Lalande was a witness of the early 
success of Chevallier; and, eager to encourage his attempts 
in favour of science and national honour, would confide to no 
other the making of all the instruments used by him. Our 
young artist also obtained great encouragement from the learned 
Alexis-Marie de Rochon, a member of the Institute, director of 
the observatory at Brest, and inventor of the rock-crystal mi- 
crometer; and afterwards gained the esteem. and confidence of 
Fourcroy, Chaptal, Baumé, and the immortal Cuvier, as well 
as of the learned surgeons Boyer, Pilletan, and Tenon. 

In 1796, M. Chevallier, at the age of eighteen, succeeded 
his grandfather in his establishment situated in the clock-tower 
of the Palais de Justice. 

It was not long before our skilful optician made this estab- 
lishment a celebrated one. Such it well deserved to be, for it 
had been founded by his family in 1740, and is undoubtedly the 
“most ancient one of the kind existing, not only in ried but in 
all Europe. | 

In this Gothic tower, this dark vestige of ancient Paris, M. 
Chevallier has, for more than forty years, devoted himself zeal- 
ously to his art. Here are his magazines, his workrooms, his 
laboratories; here, also, may be seen his thermometer, so fre- 
quently consulted, and which shows all comers the exact tem- 
 ermedsiety 

Since the hour of his installation in this venerable monument 
of feudal ages, M. Chevallier’s labours have presented an unin- 
terrupted course of ingenious improvements, and remarkable in- 
ventions. In 1801, he produced the mechanical barometer, 
which received honourable mention from the Lyceum of Arts; 
in 1806, he brought some of his areometers to great perfection, 
in concert with Cadet Devaux, the chemist. About the same 
time, he gave to the public his double opera-glasses, now in 
general use in the fashionable world. Afterwards, in 1821, he 
produced the isocentric glasses, the eminent superiority of which 
was established by Baron Menzel, a skilful oculist, and also by 


240 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


the eulogium pronounced upon them by the Royal Academical 
Scientific Society. 

During the few years following, he invented numerous eye- 
glasses, very superior to those in previous use, as well as an 
alembic for trying the quality of wine, and the Selligue micro- 
scope, approved of by the Academy of Sciences. 

In 1839, M. Chevallier obtained a reward from the Athe- 
num of Arts for the new pancratic microscope, executed upon 
the plan of Professor Fischer, of Moscow. This instrument is 
of small size, and has the very great advantage of rectifying ob- 
jects, and possessing a variable magnifying power, without 
giving the operator the trouble of changing the lenses, as in 
other, microscopes. 

Finally, at the present time (1840), he is occupied in giving 
to the public, together with M. Quevenne, principal pharmaco- 
polist of the Hospital de la Chute, the Quevenne Lactodensime- 
ter, an instrument whose object is to discover the precise nature 
of milk, and to ascertain if any foreign articles have been mixed 
with it. 

Among the inventions above enumerated, is one particularly 
worthy of the gratitude of all those whose sight is not good. 
I speak of the blue isochronic glasses, which are of great as- 
sistance to the eyes, without fatiguing or weakening them. 

Chevallier’s services to science, and to society in general, did 
not end here. Before his day, meteorological observations had — 
been much neglected. He was the first who made them the 
subject of his constant study. He continued them and pub- 
lished them daily for forty years, for the climate of Paris. It 
is in imitation of his example that similar observations have been 
made in all parts of France. 

We must not omit to mention the optic scale invented by M. 
Chevallier in 1811. By the aid of this most ingenious instru- 
ment, the use of which has been highly approved of by the 
most. eminent practising oculists, the difference existing between 


CHEVALLIER. ° 241 


eyes of unequal power may be accurately ascertained, and ad- 
justed by means of glasses of different focus. 

‘As to the numerous optical and mathematical instruments 
which M. Chevallier’s genius has produced, every one is acquaint- 
ed with their remarkable excellence. In 1823, the learned 
Arago offered them the tribute of a public eulogium; and_ the 
Baron Charles Dupin, a competent and well-informed judge, did 
them justice in the report of the committee upon the exhibition 
in 1834. ; 

Not contented with exercising his talents in the practice of 
his art, he consigned its rules to various theoretical works, the 
fruits of his long and well-directed experience. Such are his 
Instructions concerning Horizontal or other Sun-Dials, from 1805 
to 1808; The Sight-Preserver, a valuable w6rk, which passed 
through four editions, and was dedicated to the King of West- 
phalia, who testified his gratitude to the author, his own instru 
’ ment-maker, by sending him a very valuable ring, enriched with 
diamonds; The Use of Spectacles, 1814, in octavo; An Essay 
upon the Art of making Glass Instruments for Experimental 
Philosophy,1819, in octavo. This work, ornamented with fifteen 
plates, treats of all that relates to the construction and , perfec- 
tion of various glass instruments. It presents a new and com- 
plete theory of areometers as applied to sciences and chemical 
arts. Instructions in.the Use of Lightning-Rods, 1825, in 
octavo. Finally, a number of memoirs and scientific letters, 
inserted in the papers at different times. | ; 

With such claims upon celebrity, it is by no means astonish- 
ing that M. Chevallier has obtained: distinguished honours as an 
-artist. Several academical societies, especially the Atheneum 
of Arts, the French Society of Philosophical Sciences, the Mos- 
cow Imperial Society of Naturalists, the Imperial Agricultural 
Society of the same place, the Royal Academy of Sciences, at 
Metz, Amiens, &c. &c., have deemed it a matter of pride to en- 
list him among the number of their members or correspondents. 
Numerous badges of orders have been awarded to him, both in 

21 


242 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


France and other countries, as well as medals at three succes- 
sive exhibitions. Under the empire, Chevallier was often honour- 
ed with Napoleon’s praise of his philosophical instruments. He 
was at that epoch contractor for instruments for the imperial 
crown, and in that capacity sent many of his inventions and im- 
provements to the palace at Rome. Under the restoration, his 
merit gained him the place of optician to the king and princes, 
and engineer to the pages of the bed-chamber. Louis XVIII., 
who esteemed him highly, gave him several private siiliaind 
To conclude, he is at the present day royal optician, and con- 
tinues the study of the science which has made him so cele- 
brated. | 

We will add a few last words upon the character of Cheval- 
ner. Endowed with a noble and disinterested heart, he de- 
fights in encouraging and rewarding zeal and talent among those 
of his own profession ; far different from those egotistical artists, 
who, overlooking everything except their own profit, are not — 
ashamed to enrich themselves by oppressing those in their em- 
ploy. M. Chevallier is, like Sebastian Erard, the model of a 
good master; his treatment of those about him being always 
mild, affable, and conciliating. This course of conduct pro- 
duces a spirit of emulation among the workmen, each one en- 
deavouring to attain the degree of excellence aimed at by him 
in every thing made under his direction. One has but to enter 
his shops and workrooms to see how much he is beloved and re- 
spected by his workmen. It seems like one extensive and labo- 
rious family, where all are happy if they can but fulfil the 
wishes of him who is at their head, and thus prove their affection 
for him. 


CHAPTER XLIX. 


MANUFACTURES—RICHARD LENOIR. 





g « 2S <3 MONG the names which rank high for hav- 
7 Gea iC ing, in a great degree, contributed to the 
wa commercial prosperity of France, is that 

&\\ of the celebrated Richard Lenoir: one equal 
y)). to that of Oberkampf, and which will al- 
“s ways be mentioned with respectful grati- 
titude in all the workshops of the Fau- 
Riedie Saint dintahed | 

Francois-Richard (known as Richard) Lenoir, born on the 
16th of April, 1765, at Trélat, a little village of Calvados, 
belonged to a family of poor farmers. Endowed with an ac- 
tive and inventive imagination, he manifested, from his earliest 
childhood, a decided inclination for trade. At the age of twelve, 
he undertook the care of a number of pigeons, and earned a 
small sum of money by selling them. The lord of the district 
put a stop to this commerce,—but not until Richard had sold all 
his pigeons; and, with the forty-two francs they brought him, 
had procured himself a pair of hob-nailed shoes. Hitherto he 
had worn wooden ones, like those of his playfellows. 

To the trade in pigeons succeeded that of a handsome race 
of dogs; and Richard’s gains were evinced in the striking dif- 
ference between his costume and that of the other boys in the 
school. Having learrfed to read and write well, he was intrust- 
ed with the keeping of the register of the cattle-market, which 
was held every Wednesday, at Villiers le Bocage. 

Actuated by a love of traffic, and a desire to enrich himself, 
he left his father’s residence at the age of seventeen, well pro- 
vided with clothes, but having only twelve francs in his pocket. 
He remained at Rouen for a short time, in the employ of a dealer 

(248) 


244 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


in printed cottons; but, by some unfortunate chance, instead of 
being allowed an advantageous share in the business, Richard 
found himself obliged to perform various servile offices for his 
employer. Finally, disappointed in this, he hastily left the situ- 
ation for that of a lemonade-seller, hoping thereby to amass a 
sufficient sum to enable him to go to Paris. 

A. year afterwards we behold him in that city, struggling 
against. the numerous difficulties which a beginner always en- 
counters. He served as a‘waiter in a coffee-house in the Rue 
Saint Dénis, for a year. He there made a capital of one thou- 
sand francs, and resolved to go into trade. Hiring a room ina 
sixth story, in the Rue Saint Honoré, in the neighbourhood of 
the Piazza, he purchased several pieces of English dimity, then 
very rare in, France, and to insure a sale, carried them from 
house to house. Six months had hardly passed before Richard 
was in possession of 25,000 livres. 

The revolution broke out; but if we except a few unimportant 
accidents, it had no effect whatever upon Richard’s ever active 
spirit. He took a commodious shop in the Rue Francaise, and 
was so fortunate in his speculations as to be soon able to become 
the possessor of the fine estate of Fayt, near Némours. At the 
earliest intimations of the approach of the period so justly 
termed that of terror, he had the good sense to suspend his 
commereial operations, which would rather tend to endanger him 
than otherwise. Summing up his gains with his partner, he 
left Paris to pay a visit to his relations, then residing in the 
village of Epinay. 

Richard’s arrival at home seemed a sort of providential cir- 
cumstance. Hardly had he crossed his father’s threshold, when 
bailiffs presented themselves for the arrest of the old man. He 
had gone bail for a tax-gatherer, who had absconded with the 
funds in his own possession. The son satisfied their demands, 
and proved thereby that the twelve francs he had carried away 
with him ten years before had not lain idle. 

_ After passing two months with his family, Richard returned 


RICHARD LENOIR. 245 


to Paris, and to his former trade now added that of a lapidary, 
which he found extremely profitable. Chance brought him into 
contact with a young merchant named Lenoir Dufresne. Both 
had resolved to buy the same piece of English cloth. Being 
pleased with each other, they bought it together, and soon after 
entered into a partnership, which was only dissolved by the 
death of Lenoir Dufresne. ‘Their establishment attracted such 
crowds of purchasers, that at the end of six months their sales 
amounted to fifteen hundred francs a day, and at the expiration 
of a year, their daily receipts rose to the sum of 4,000 francs. 
Finally, when they made their inventory in fourteen months, 
they ascertained that the 6,000 francs they had invested in the 
business had produced a revenue of 112,000 francs. Their 
great profit was upon English goods. 

“The time had now come,” says a well-informed biographer, 
*‘ for Richard to become himself the manufacturer of the cotton 
stuffs, in which he had so long speculated and with so much 
success. The longer he pursued this branch of trade, the more 
anxious he became to discover the secret of their fabrication. 
Chance revealed it to him. One day, during his partner’s 
absence, he amused himself with ravelling the threads of some 
English goods: he weighed these threads, and ascertained that a 
piece of eight yards in length, and worth eighty francs, only 
weighed eight pounds, and could only have been valued at 
twelve francs in its original state; consequently, sixty-eight 
francs remained for the working up. This was anew light upon 
the subject. But the question now was, how to procure the raw 
material; for England was the great cotton mart: it was there 
that this substance was received, spun, and manufactured. The 
difficulty was a serious one, but commercial enterprise was able 
to surmount it. 

From that time, Richard entertained the patriotic idea of 
setting France free from the sort of tax now imposed upon her 
by England. Animated by this noble ambition, he triumphed 
over the doubts and fears of his partner, and set himself to work. 

21* 


246 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


His first two looms were set up in a public house in the Rue 
de Bellefond, and dimity, similar to the English, was woven. 
Lenoir discovered the method of figuring it. A spinning-factory 
was now necessary to the prosperity of the new art. Richard 
had twenty-two mull jennies constructed at a great expense, 
with carding-machines and trundles. These he established in a 
large house in the Rue de Thorigny, in the Marais. The 
stuffs sold well and rapidly ; for they were believed to be of 
English manufacture. In want of space for his rapidly-in- 
creasing machines, and under the daily necessity of procuring 
new workmen, Richard, trusting to the protection of the First 
Consul, Bonaparte, took a sort of military possession of the de- 
serted buildings formerly known as the Convent of Bon Secours. 

Causing the vast apartments to be repaired with the rapidity 
of enchantment, he filled them with his workmen. Napoleon, 
hearing of this invasion, paid a visit to the establishment, and 
expressed his approbation of the activity so conspicuous in every 
department; he witnessed with much pleasure the process of 
bleaching the cotton, and testified his high opinion of the two | 
manufacturers, by giving them permission to occupy the former 
Convent of Trénelle, situated opposite to that of Bon Secours. 

It was then that this new branch of trade underwent the im- 
mense developement which distinguished it above all others ; and 
then were reaped the enormous profits amounting to 40,000 
francs a month. 

Nevertheless, encouraged by their extraordinary success, 
Richard and Lenoir redoubled their activity in extending their 
labours. Before long, three hundred looms were established in 
various villages of Picardy; forty in Alencon; one hundred 
mull jennies, and more than two hundred weaver’s looms, in the 
Abbey of Saint Martin, near Luzarches. An arrangement was 
made by them for giving employment to all the women who 
were in jail at Alencon. The Abbey of the Benedictines was 
used for this purpose, and the Abbey of Aulnay was opened to 
six hundred workmen. 


RICHARD LENOIR. =~ 247 


After the death of his partner Lenoir (1806), which was an 
occasion of great sorrow to all the poor of the Faubourg Saint 
Antoine, Richard, now universally known by the name of 
Richard Lenoir, continued his calling with all his former zeal. 
He introduced spinning-factories at Caen and L’Aigle, and a cot- 
ton-printing establishment at Chantilly, and undertook the culti- 
vation of cotton. His annual profits, at that time, were esti- 
mated at 1,200,000 francs. He was now at the summit of his 
prosperity. In 1801, the new tax laid upon cotton struck a 
blow at his establishments. The union of Holland and France 
increased his financial embarrassments. In vain Napoleon 
obliged the treasury to advance him the sum of 1,500,000 francs ; 
in vain Richard Lenoir metamorphosed his cotton-mills into 
woollen-mills. The disasters of 1813, and especially the law of 
the 25th of April, 1814, which suppressed entirely and without 
indemnity the former taxes upon cotton, were the precursors of 
heavy calamity to manufacturers. This active man, who, at a 
time by no means generally prosperous, had employed 20,000 
workmen, was completely ruined. 

Richard Lenoir had received the Cross of Honour from the 
hands of the emperor himself. He was a member of the Council 
for Stuffs and Manufactures, and one of the company of Paris 
manufacturers. Made colonel of the eighth legion of the National 
Guard on the 8th of January, 1814, he distinguished himself in 
the defence of the capital, no less by his courage than by the 
generous humanity evinced in succouring the wounded. 

This honourable citizen, so remarkable for his enterprising 
spirit, died on the 19th of October, 1840, at the age of seventy- 
eight. 

‘“‘ His obsequies,” says one of his biographers, “ were cele- 
brated on the 20th of October, with great pomp. The pro- 
cession, leaving the house of death in the Faubourg Montmartre, 
consisted of an innumerable concourse of mechanics, and received 
new additions at every step. Arrived at the manufactory of 
Bon Secours, they, paused, in accordance with the wishes of 


248 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Lenoir himself, who had expressed a desire to be carried thither 
after his death, and to be for the last time surrounded by those 
to whom he had been so fond a master. In the centre of this 
magnificent building, the workmen had raised a monument com- 
bining simplicity with grandeur. Above the bust of Richard 
Lenoir stood the statue of Napoleon; on the front of the pe- 
destal were inscribed these words: The emperor lends fifteen 
hundred thousand francs to Richard Lenoir. On the other 
side: Richard Lenoir marches to the defence of Paris at the 
head of twenty thousand united workmen.” 





CHAPTER L. 


THE CATACOMBS. 


EFORE terminating our account of the period of 
the empire, and being present, as it were, at the 
funeral ceremonies of that great epoch, let us 

A\ turn our reader’s attention to the fearful galleries 

of death, known by the name of the Catacombs; 

Y those immense subterranean vaults where lie the 
hekicn of thirty or forty generations. 

The great labours to which the creation of the Catacombs 
gave rise, labours which were not finished before 1810 and 1811, 
were undertaken in 1786, 1787, and 1788. It was the prefect 
of police, Lenoir, who first proposed the plan of transporting to the 
old quarries under Paris all the human remains in the cemeteries 
of that city, and that of the church des Innocents in particular, 
which for seven centuries had been the receptacle for the dead 
of all the surrounding parishes. This wise measure was one of 
the greatest importance as regarded the public health; but the 
events of the revolution did not permit it to be immediately car- 
ried into effect. It was not until the end of Napoleon’s reign 
that time was found, and opportunity, for finishing this sepul- 
chral monument, the only one of the kind in all France. 

The Catacombs are situated between the Barri¢re d’Enfer 
and the Barriére Saint Jaques, beneath a plain called the Isoire or 
Isoard tomb. The entrance is by three great stair-cases, the 
largest of which communicates with the upper regions at a place 
called the Fosse aux Lions; the second stair-case is under the 
mills at Montsouris, and the third, the most frequented, is at the 
Barri¢re d’Enfer. One cannot with safety enter this subter- 
ranean necropolis without the aid of guides and torches. You 


go down a narrow stair-way (which admits but one person at a 
(249) 





250 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


time), a distance of thirty metres, until you reach the dominion 
of death. Here you behold human bones from the floor to the 
ceiling, arranged in the form of pyramids, obelisks, and columns 
Three festoons of skulls form a sort of cornice to these architec- 
tural singularities. Inscriptions show to what cemetery, and to 
what church these skeletons were originally consigned. The 
remains of the victims of the revolution have a spot assigned to 
themselves. 

There is also in the Catacombs a collection of minerals found 
upon the spot. Another curious collection, and one which is 
particularly interesting to physicians, is composed of the bones 
of all those who died of the same disease. These are placed in 
order, according to the nature of the complaint. ‘There is also 
an assemblage of skulls, remarkable for size, shape, or anything 
which may render them objects of curiosity, or, what is better 
still, of scientific study. 

The most remarkable circumstance to be observed in the Cata- 
combs, is the free ventilation throughout. The method by which 
' this is effected is extremely simple, but at the same time very 
ingenious. 

“‘ The renewal of the air in the Catacomhs,” says M. Nestor 
L’ Hote, “ is effected by an ingenious system of ventilation, which 
acts throughout, and is sufficient for the needs of the place. 
For this purpose a wall has been built around the walls which 
traverse the Catacombs, and supply the houses above with water. 
In this wall numerous holes have been made, the stoppers of 
which are removed when a want of air is experienced in the 
Catacombs. The men whose business it is to regulate the ven- 
tilation of the Catacombs, are able, by an accurate knowledge of 

the sun’s altitude, and the direction and force of the wind, to 
seize upon the precise moment for ent, the greatest pos- 
sible quantity of air into the vaults.” 

Finally, the present destination of the Catacombs, their lugu- 
brious aspect, and the solemn thoughts which naturally fill the 


THE CATACOMBS, 251 


mind upon witnessing these silent galleries of the déad, have 
caused various inscriptions to be placed upon the walls, taken, 
for the most part, from authors of distinction, poets, and _philo- 
sophers of ancient and modern times, and always in harmony 
with the place itself. There is also a register kept, in which 
visiters may inscribe their emotions and impressions for the be- 
nefit of future visiters. 





CHAPTER LI. 


CELEBRATED MECHANICS—NATIONAL REVERSES— 
NAPOLEON’S DOWNFALL. 


HERE are many names which we might have 
enumerated in our cycle of talented manufac- 
turers, whose labours have sustained and aug- 
mented the glory of the mechanic arts. We 
might, for instance, have made mention of 
Kochlin, distinguished as a cotton printer ; Che- 
venard and Sallandrouze. as makers of carpets and curtains; 
Jacob Desmalter, universally known for his furniture; Bordier 
Marcet, for his improvements in lighting rooms, and many 
others whose names stood at the head of arts and manufactures 
during the empire. But all these will find a place in our work, 
when, in the progressive march of French industry, we reach 
that portion included in the aiden pereee 1814 and the pre- 
_ Sent day. 

Every one is well abitaiited with the calamities which ac- 
companied the latter years of Napoleon’s reign,—putting a stop 
to manufactures and trades of every description. There was 
no more business, no more improvement in the arts; commerce 
was in a languishing condition. The whole of our national ac- 
-tivity seemed to be concentrated upon our arsenals and weapon- 
making establishments. Our reverses in Spain; the disastrous 
campaign in Russia; the traitorous defection of our allies, and 
the invasion of France by the northern hordes, were so many 
successive blows at all branches of industry. After a truly 
marvellous struggle, in which Napoleon displayed all the re- 
sources of military science, and in which he overcame the ene- 
my twenty times, he found himself, although weakened by the 


effect of his victories, still in a condition to oppose all Europe, 
(252) 





BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 253 


at the head of his brave and faithful soldiers. But what froce 
could not accomplish, was, in the end, consummated by treason 
and dark diplomacy. The gates of Paris were opened to the 
enemy ; and the emperor, to prove his devotion to France, re- 
nounced, for himself and his heirs, the throne which he had made 
so glorious. He who had elevated this throne; he who had re- 
established peace among us, and dispersed factions; who had 
lifted the crown from the dust, as has been energetically said, 
was imprisoned in a little island in the Mediterranean by the 
very kings and emperors who had met with such generous treat- 
ment at his hands. He was stigmatized with the name of 
usurper ! 

Then ensued his brilliant return from Elba, Bs. the general 
enthusiasm excited by his rapid passage through the country. 
Thousands of descriptions have been given, and will still con- 
tinue to be given of the great events of the new reign of one | 
hundred days. 

The battle-eagle again spread his wings over opposing armies ; 
and, for two entire days, filled them with astonishment, and 
obliged them to’ yield to his victorious thunders. But the fatal 
hour was not yet arrived. The great man was destined to fall 
again. A panic seized upon our youthful soldiers; they fled in 
disorder, as on the fatal fields of Crécy, Agincourt, and Poi- 
tiers. The English and the Prussians could scarcely credit their 
own triumph; and this victory’s first infidelity decided Napo- 
leon’s fate for ever. 

The emperor did not wish to survive this catastrophe. He. 
threw himself, sword in hand, into a battalion; but the flying 
cannon-halls appeared to respect him. His generals and staff- 
officers seized his horse’s bridle, and obliged him to follow them 
at a gallop. 

At the battle of Waterloo the old imperial guard sustained 
the former French glory by their heroic devotion to their em- 
peror’s cause. It was at the most desperate part of the conflict. 
“Cambronne,” says M. Alexander Dumas, “ interposed himself 

22 


ae ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


with the second battalion of the first regiment of light infantry 
between the English cavalry and the fugitives, and forming a 
square, drew the enemy’s attention. to himself and bis battalion 
alone; and, closely surrounded and pressed on all sides, he fought 
until obliged to surrender. Upon this occasion he made use, not 
of the flowery phrase ascribed to him, but of a single word, a 
soldier’s expression, it is true, but one whose energy is as re- 
markable as its simplicity ; and immediately fell, wounded in the 
head by the explosion of a shell.” 

The disasters of Waterloo reopened the road to Paris, to 
the allied powers; Napoleon’s downfall was established, and the 
Bourbons again took possession of the throne. 

One of the earliest measures of the royal government was 
the disbanding of the troops, upon whose fidelity there was now 
no dependence to be placed. All the warriors, young and old, 
were to be seen following the roads to their respective native 
villages. Bitter were the tears which rolled down their weather- 
beaten cheeks, as these brave soldiers departed from under the 
French banners. It was not without a sort of rage that they 
thought of their emperor’s fate; their future prospects de- 
stroyed; their dreams of glory vanished. Nothing now re- 
mained for them but to return to the paternal plough. | 

On the 16th of October, 1815, Napoleon, in virtue of the 
commands of the sovereigns, united in the Holy Alliance, landed 
at the island of Saint Helena, where his jailers were to be his 
most implacable enemies,—the English. 

By enchainihg the hero upon this rock in the midst of the 
ocean, the traitorous members of the British cabinet knew that 
they were pronouncing his death-warrant. They wished to in- 
flict a slow torture upon him. Their cruel wish was realized. 
By the 5th of May, 1821, all was over! 

Napoleon, before he died, dictated the following words, words 
so touching in his condition of a dying exile :— 

“‘T desire that my remains may lie upon the banks of the 


NAPOLEON’S REMAINS. 250 


Seine, in the midst of the French people whom I have loved so 
well.” 

Whilst I am writing these lines, this wish, expressed nearly 
twenty years ago, is on the point of being put into execution. 
Moved, no doubt, by one of those Machiavellian afterthoughts 
which are always so familiar to her, especially with regard to 
France, the English government has at last decided to set at 
liberty the illustrious ashes of her glorious victim. Before long 
the French people will be able to pay a funeral homage to the 
great man who conquered all-the nations of Europe; and, what 
is no less singular, Napoleon’s remains are brought howe in tri- 
umph by a prince of the royal family of Bourbon! 





CHAPTER LII. 


THE RESTORATION. 





2) ITH the re-establishment of the Bourbons 
upon the throne of France commenced a 
new era of prosperity to our arts and 
sciences. The peace so ardently longed 
for after the long and calamitous wars, 
and now insured to us for some time 
by the union of all the European powers, caused our old 
workshops and .manufactories to be opened, and many new ones 
to be built, and excited a spirit of emulation among manufactu- 
rers and tradesmen of every description. Circumstances in gen- 
eral, as well as the government itself, acted favourably upon 
this onward march: circumstances, by the numerous markets 
opened to French goods in every direction; government, by 
wise measures suited to the necessities of the times, and, by a 
judicious distribution of rewards, doing honour to French mu- 
‘nificence. . 

This revival, effected during the restoration, is, notwith- 
standing the efforts of many to promote a very different opin- 
ion, a matter of most undeniable fact. 

That learned professor of political economy, M. Blanqué, 
senior, appears to have formed a just appreciation of the great 
manufacturing movement which took place at that epoch. 
‘¢ Compare,” says he, “ France at the present day to what she 
was twenty years ago, overwhelmed with the weight of her 
glory and her misfortunes; it is like an entirely new country ; 
it has been sufficient for the hand of man but to touch the sur- 
face of the soil, in order to extract from it riches of greater value 
than any ever produced in the most prosperous days of antiquity. 


A manufacturing population has sprung up as if by enchantment ; 
(256) 


MANUFACTURES AFTER THE RESTORATION. 257 


old abbeys and feudal dungeons are transformed into manufacto- 
ries ; bodies of smiths, spinners, and weavers, take the place of the 
all-consuming, but non-productive troops of' soldiers; commerce 
and the arts open an honourable career to our children under the 
auspices of peace. A spirit of order and economy spreads through 
all orders of society; savings banks and. insurance offices make 
poverty the fate of the idle and dissipated alone. The smallest 
possible sum of money may at once be put out at interest and 
made productive. The ocean itself has no more irreparable 
shipwrecks ; precautions are taken against the consequences of 
death. Distances are daily annihilated by steamboats and rail- 
roads. The Mediterranean is again a mere lake. The arts 
and sciences have produced these wonders; and, if France has 
not the whole merit, her share is yet sufficiently great for her 
children to feel justly proud of her.” 

This state of things is no doubt owing to the introduction of 
the representative form of government into France. The con- 
stitutional charter which was solemnly granted to the people by 
Louis X VIII.; that charter, which was to be the palladium of 
public liberty, and which proclaimed the legal equality of all 
citizens, seemed to give new vigour to the nation’s somewhat 
aged blood, and to spread an activity throughout. This arsed 
naturally expended itself upon manufactures. 

Attention was particularly drawn to articles of luxury. The 
fabrication of printing paper began to acquire the high degree of 
excellence which now distinguishes the products of the manu- 
factories in Paris and the Haut Rhin. Bookbinding, mathe- 
matical instruments, jewelry, bronze ornaments, cabinet-work, 
porcelain, plated ware, velvets, satins, embroideries, laces, 
printed’ calicoes, cloths, ormamented weapons, hardware goods, 
&c.; and especially all those things known as Paris articles, 
and exported to all countries, underwent a rapid and important 
increase, both in the manufacture and sale. Ingenious machines 
were invented for improving fire-arms, and this branch of indus- 
try was carried to a great degree of excellence. The various 

22* 


258 _ ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


ornamental articles of bronze, although much criticized with re- 
gard to their execution, acquired a delicacy and a beauty of 
detail far superior to those of any other nation. Finally, the 
‘time was not far off, when the great improvements in lithogra- 
phy rendered this art of great value to France. 

Unfortunately, as remarks a skilful political economist, the 
French consider elegance in every thing to the utter neglect 
of utility, a point so much regarded in all other countries. 
Her principal productions, says the same author, are articles of 
luxury, the very first which we lay aside at the slightest indi- 
cation of change in the political horizon. 

But, during the first ten years of the restoration, tranquillity, 
both external and internal, was too well established to give 
rise to any uneasiness. At home, several conspiracies were put 
down without any serious harm occurring to the government ; 
abroad, the war with Spain, and the expedition into Morea, 
had by no means the character nor the results of Napoleon’s 
great wars. A most fortunate epoch, then, for arts and man-— 
ufactures. 

There had been no exhibition since the year 1806. Louis 
XVIII. betrayed the deep interest he took in the progress of 
the national arts, by commanding one to be held every five 
years. This enlightened monarch looked upon these exhibitions 
as an efficacious means of encouragement, and an incontestable 
advantage, not only as a stimulus to the zeal of manufacturers, 
and to the hope of rewards, but also as ameans of ascertaining 
which branch of commerce was the most profitable. 

In the same spirit, this patriotic king re-established, on the 
sixteenth of November, 1816, the order of Saint Michael, des- 
tined as a reward for the authors of discoveries, works, or enter- 
prises which should be useful to his country. This order, the 
badge of which consisted of a cross bearing the figure of Saint 
Michael, and suspended to a black ribbon, had been instituted by 
Louis XI., on the first of August, 1469. At first it was exclu- 
sively military. Mansard and Lendtre were the first artists 
who obtained this mark of distinction. In restoring the order 


M. DECAZES. 259 
of Saint Michael, Louis X VIII. restricted the number of knights 


to a hundred. 

The king’s efforts with regard to the arts and sciences, were. 
ably seconded by a skilful minister. M. Decazes, now grand 
referendary of the Chamber of Peers, then filled that station. 
He has been justly termed Louis X VIII.’s most brilliant minis- 
ter. To his wise influence the useful arts owe much. It was 
he, who, in a great degree, contributed to the re-establishment 
of the exhibitions of the various products of the arts; it was he 
who founded councils for the discussion of agricultural, manu- 
facturing, and commercial subjects; and who made the first ap- 
plication of science to the mechanic arts at the Conservatoire 
des Arts et Metiers. The exhibition in 1819, which was held 
under his active administration, revealed remarkable improve- 
ments in all departments, and especially in those which relate 
to dress. 

The 13th of February of the following year, was a sad day 
for all France, and particularly for the manufacturing interests. 
On that day a second Ravaillac murdered one of the heirs of the 
crown; the regicidal poniard of the fanatic Louvel struck a 
fatal blow at the Duke de Berri as he was coming out of the 
opera. He expired a few hours afterwards, in the arms of his 
uncle the king, asking pardon for the man who had killed him. 

In consequence of this tragic and deplorable event, M. Dé- 
cazes, a prey to the angry accusations of a party now in power, 
was obliged to resign his important station. This was a mis- 
fortune for manufactures, already suffering from the loss of the 
Duke de Berri, a zealous and intelligent protector of talents and 
the arts. ; 

Nevertheless, the events which I shall have occasion to men- 
tion, and the illustrious names which are about to follow in rapid 
succession, will prove that our commercial and manufacturing 
prosperity has increased greatly during twenty-five years. I 
shall begin this review with an account of several memorable 
facts in connexion with the alimentary arts. 


CHAPTER LIII. 


ALIMENTARY ARTS. 


HIGHLY important discovery has gained 
M. Appert'a gold medal. It consists in 
boiling meat or vegetables, at their pre- 
IO as cise boiling point, and in enclosing them 
free from air in tin vessels, which are 
hermetically sealed. ‘‘ Enclosed in. this 
manner,” says M. Charles Dupin, “ food, 
even at ie ou of several years, after voyages to the equator 
and to the poles, will preserve its original freshness, flavour, and 
smell. Such a preservation of victuals is especially valuable. 
for the navy, which, before this discovery, had no other resource 
than that of salt food.” 

The learned gentleman goes on to say, ‘To preserve food 
for a length of time, which has a natural tendency to speedy 
decay, is not only a means of prolonging the enjoyments of the 
rich beyond the limits imposed by the seasons, or still narrower 
restrictions, but affords facilities to great numbers for preserving 
their health, even in situations where many hardships are neces- 
sarily endured.” 

Many thanks are due to M. Darcet, a member of the Academy 
of Sciences, for having first brought to light the economical 
method of extracting, in the form of gelatine, an abundant 
nutritious substance from the bones of animals, which may be 
used to great advantage in hospitals, in very small_families, and 
particularly in supplying the poor with food. It is also very 
valuable for barracks, besieged towns, and vessels on long 
yoyages. Gelatinous soup has in this manner been made, in the 
last few years, in various hospitals and public establishments at 


Paris. The happy idea of extracting the gelatine from bones 
(260) 





CHOCOLATE. 261 


is entirely owing to M. Darcet, junior. He effected this, by 
separating the gelatinous portion from the saline particles which 
enter into the composition of bones, by means of muriatic acid, 
which has the property of destroying the salt without i — 
the ¢elatine. : 

Chemists have discovered a means of converting organic mat- 

_ ter into excellent manure, whence result great advantages to 
agriculture, which is the basis of all national prosperity. M. 
Derosne has formed establishments for the desiccation of blood, 
and thus given to the world a manure also containing the bitu- 
minous schist extracted from the mines at Menat. M. Payen 
has published an account of the remarkable effects of the char- 
coal-like residuum, which contains a portion of insoluble desicca- 
ted blood. This charcoal acts with greater power than an equal 
weight of liquid blood. This new manure now fertilizes the 
soil of the west of France, and generally doubles or trebles the 
produce. Of late, M. Salmon has obtained a new manure of an 
excellent and economical kind. It consists of a mixture of or- 
ganic detritus with a mud, which he renders extremely porous 
and absonbent; he effects this by calcining it in closed vessels, 
and reducing it to an exceedingly fine powder. In this process, 
he does not lose a single atom useful as manure. This process 
was rewarded by the committee on the exhibition of 1834, as 
very valuable with regard to agriculture, and also to health. 

It would be an act of injustice and of ingratitude, to close our 
account of the alimentary arts without doing homage to the 
memory of the celebrated Dubauve, who, of late years, by his 
wise efforts was able to deliver France from the tribute hitherto 
paid to Italy and Spain for the importation of chocolate; an 
article, whose virtues have been celebrated by Metastasio in a 
graceful cantata, and which is so highly recommended by 
physicians in a number of morbific affections. Sulpicius Du- 
bauve, born at Paris on the 6th of December, 1757, at first 
studied medicine, but soon abandoned it for pharmacy, which 
was more in accordance with his naturally mild and sensitive 


262 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


disposition. Admitted as a pharmacopolist in 1790, he was ex- 
clusively occupied with the labours attendant upon his profession 
until 1800. It was during that period of ten years, and in the 
midst of the horrors of the revolution, that he discovered the 
wonderful properties of Salop, the prepared root of the Orchis 
mascula, and was the first to apply it to therapeutics. At the 
same time, Dubauve studied the nature of cacao, and ascertained 
the various improvements of which it was susceptible, both as 
agreeable food and as.a medicament. 

The beginning of the consulate appeared a favourable time for 
endowing France with the result of his discoveries. He there- 
fore renounced pharmacy in general, and applied himself solely 
to the making of chocolate. His first attempts were humble, as 
is always the case with any branch of art destined to prosperity. 
His first establishment increased rapidly ; he soon had others in 
all the important towns in France. Finally, growing beyond 
all bounds, Dubauve became a builder, and raised the edifice 
which still exists in the Rue des Saints Peres, and upholds the 
renown of its founder. | 

Guided by his medical and pharmaceutic knowledge, Dubauve 
entertained the fortunate idea of combining with chocolate vari- 
ous other substances considered beneficial tohealth. Such com- 
binations acquired a great reputation over all Europe. 

We will quote the opinion of Brillat Savarin on this subject ; 
an opinion which does his palate as much honour as his discrimi- 
nating intelligence. 

The following are his own words in-his Physiologie du 
Gout: — 

‘¢ Being fond of chocolate, we have tried that of nearly all the 
different makers, and have at last determined to take no other 
than that prepared by Dubauve, Rue des Saints Peres, number 
twenty-six; he is the royal chocolate-maker, and we rejoice 
that the sun’s ray has fallen upon the most worthy. 

It is by no means astonishing : M. Dubauve, a distinguished 


CHOCOLATE. 263 


pharmacopolist, threw upon the subject of chocolate, new lights 
acquired by him for purposes of a much wider sphere. 

“Those who have not attempted it are utterly unaware of the 
difficulties to be met with in endeavouring to bring any material 
to perfection, and how much attention, tact, and experience, are 
required for preparing a chocolate which is to be sweet 
without insipidity, firm without harshness, compact without 
feculency, and aromatic without unwholesomeness. 

‘Such are the preparations of M. Dubauve; they owe their 
superior excellence to a choice of good materials, and to a deter- 
mination that nothing of inferior quality shall issue from his 
manufactory, as well as: to the watchful eye of the master, 
always presiding over every department of the establishment. 

* Aoreeably with the rules of his theory, M. Dubauve has 
sought to offer to his numerous customers preventives against 
various complaints. : 

“ For instance, for the very thin, he prescribes the Analeptic 
Salop .chocolate; for the nervous the Orange-flower anti- 
spasmodic chocolate ; for those of irritable temperaments the 
Almond-milk chocolate ; to which we must add the Chocolate 
for the afflicted, scented and medicated secundem artem. 

“ Kotzebue, in his Souvenirs de Paris ; Grimod de la Reynicre, 
in L’Almanach des Gourmands; Alibert, in his Traite de 
Therapeutique ; Alexis Bombard, in his Trratte des Affections des 
Vowes Digestives ; and the learned Tourlet, in an article in the 
Moniteur Universel, all recommend Dubauve’s preparations with 
the highest praises, and give a celebrity to his establishment, 
which proves the truth of its motto, taken from Horace, utile 
dulci ; a common one, but also one as well suited to it as if it 
declared in large letters the renown gained by French chocolate.” 

Dubauve was honoured by the particular esteem of Corvisart, 
Portal, Alibert, and Montegre, in a word, by that of all the 
most celebrated medical men. He died on the 12th of April, 
1836, leaving a worthy successor in the person of M. A. Gallais, 


264 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. ~ 


his nephew, whom he had fortunately taken into partnership in 
1823. 

M. Gallais is precisely the man the most capable of sus- 
taining his uncle’s reputation. Well informed, and possessed of 
a desire for acquiring further information; endowed like Du- 
bauve with a spirit of research and invention, and alone initiated 
into the secrets of the combination which had rendered the. 
establishment so justly celebrated, M. Gallais, by himself pro- 
ducing new and happy combinations, has merited the same 
praise which was so liberally given to his uncle before him. To 
him alone is owing, among many.other inventions of a similar 
nature, the Thereobroma. 

M. Gallais has published the result of his researches in a very 
interesting work entitled Monography of Cacao, one volume 
octavo. It is an entirely new treatise on this subject; it con- 
tains a number of curious details, and is remarkable for an ele- 
gant and instructive accuracy. The author undertook to spread 
throughout France an exact knowledge of the useful production 
which serves as a basis to chocolate; his efforts have been 
crowned with success. 

Finally; in 1835, he discovered an ingenious process for pre- 
serving the basis of milk. This is called lactoline, and the dis- 
covery would have elevated its author to a distinguished place 
in the hierarchy of science, if more urgent business had not 
obliged him to confide it to the hands of others. Lactoline con- 
sists of the seminuliferous globules of milk, concentrated by the 
evaporation of the serum which they contain, and of that which 
surrounds them. ‘This substance, in order to regain its nutri- 
tious qualities and to become milk again, requires only water, of 
which it has been deprived for the sake of preservation. 


CHAPTER LIV. 


CABINET-MAKING. 


NE of the branches of French arts which 
have made such rapid improvements in the 
last fifty years, is that of cabinet- making. 
To this art are owing not only magnificent 
pieces of furniture, but also admirable wain- 
scotings, and ceilings which do honour to the 
taste of those who have executed them. : 
Mahogany was much used in this art under the consulate and 
the empire. At the present day several other woods enjoy an 
equal reputation for beauty and excellence. Mahogany is the 
wood of the Indian cashew tree, which grows to the height of 
our largest oaks. It was unknown in Europe until the begin- 
ning of the eighteenth century. ‘‘ At this epoch,” says one of 
the authors of the Nouveau Dictionnaire des Origines, “the 
brother of the celebrated Dr. Gibbons, commander of a vessel 
employed in the West India trade, brought back, as_ ballast, 
several planks of this wood, which he sent to his brother, the 
doctor, then building a house in Covent Garden; but the-car- 
penters finding it too hard for their ordinary tools, would make 
no use of it, and it remained a long time forgotten in the doc- 
tor’s garden. Some years afterwards, a candle-box was made 
of some of this wood; but the workman complained, as the. 
carpenters before, of the hardness of the wood, and the weak- 
ness of his tools. The doctor advised him to procure stronger 
ones; and the candle-box was finished. The doctor was so 
pleased with the beauty of it that he wished to have a desk of 
_ the same wood; the workman he employed being very skilful, 
made it with great taste. Dr. Gibbons, enchanted with his dis- 


covery, showed his desk to his friends. The Duchess of Buck- 
23 (265) 





266 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


ingham admired it, and entreated the doctor to give her some 
mahogany to have one made like it. Thus it was that mahoga- 
ny was introduced into England, where it was in general use 
towards the middle of the eighteenth century, and afterwards 
in all the countries of Europe. 

Cabinet-making, towards the end of the revolution, partook 
of the revival of the fine arts. At that epoch, the celebrated 
Vien improved the art of painting; and his pupil, David, an ex- 
cellent artist, and the head of a new school, contributed much 
to the improvement of taste. A similar metamorphosis took 
place in furniture, which had hitherto been remarkable for heavy 
and awkward forms, and strange fantastical ornaments. It was 
M. Jacob Desmalter who principally contributed to this fortu- 
nate change, as much by his advice as his example; and, by 
the beauty of the articles made under his direction, gained a 
cosmopolitan reputation. © 

Born, so to speak, amidst cabinet-ware, for his father was 
successively cabinet-maker to Louis XV. and Louis XVI., M. 
Desmalter betrayed, in early youth, a sort of passion for every 
thing connected with the profession in which he afterwards be- 
came so illustrious. 

His great labours were undertaken during the consulate. The 
entire refurnishing of the Cniteau de Saint Cloud, and Mal- 
maison, was confided to him. The bookcase in this latter resi- 
dence, which was made in two weeks, after a design of Percier, 
and which is entirely of mahogany, is remarkable for the beau- 
tiful execution of all the details, and especially for the skill 
which triumphed over all the difficulties presented by the place. 
In this same chateau M. Desmalter gave new proofs of his 
talents in the council chamber, the arrangements of which 
were entirely military, in accordance with the emperor’s charac- 
ter. The other apartments of Malmaison were successively 
fitted up as if by magic. Bonaparte, who saw impossibility in 
nothing, required the completion of a new piece of work every 
week, and his orders were punctually obeyed. 


DESMALTER. | 267 


Under the empire, M. Desmalter was intrusted with the- re- 
furnishing of the Tuileries, of the Grand and Petit Trianon, 
the Louvre, the chateaux of Fontainebleau and Compiégne. 
These different trusts were executed in a manner which did 
honour to the talents of the artist. 

In the palace of the Tuileries the throne room is worthy of 
great admiration, as well as the emperor’s closet, which is orna- 
mented with bronze, and in which there is a mechanical piece of 
furniture, of curious mechanism, the first of the kind ever fabri- 
cated—the empress’s sleeping-room, where is a jewel-case, with 
many secret drawers in the inside. All the architectural portions 
of this magnificent piece of furniture were of bronze, the rest 
of various foreign woods; the figures were executed after de- 
signs by Chaudet, Lemot, Castellier, and other celebrated artists. 
At Fontainebleau, we may mention, as particularly worthy of 
notice, the throne room and the empress’s closet. At the Lou- 
vre, the gate under the colonnade; it is of bronze and wood, 
and beautifully executed. In the apartment called Des Fleuves, 
under the tribune of Jean Goujon, M. Jacob Desmalter con- 
structed a door with much art: the ornaments and mouldings 
are of bronze, and the panels are bas-reliefs imported from 
Italy, which were originally upon the tomb of King Mauso- 
leus. At Trianon he distinguished himself by the beautiful ar- 
rangement of the malachites presented to Napoleon by the Em- 
peror Alexander. They were made into two pieces of furni- 
ture, two candelabra, and a vase elevated upon bronze chimeras, 
in imitation of the antique style. 

Besides these pieces of workmanship destined for royal use, 
Desmalter supplied many of the dignitaries of the court with 
splendid furniture. He made frequent use of native woods in 
the fabrication of beds, screens, and various other articles. For 
instance, walnut, pear and cherry, &c., ornamented with incrust- 
ations of wood, and all remarkable for delicacy and good taste. 

The execution of a cabinet, for Charles IV., king of Spain, 
upon Percier’s plan, won honourable suffrages for Desmalter. 


268 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


As may well be imagined, the talents of this skilful artist met 
with the same encouragement from the Bourbons. The throne 
room and sleeping-room of Louis XVIII. were the principal 
pieces of work undertaken at that time. 

M. Desmalter’s establishment underwent numerous additions 
under the imperial government, and was entirely beyond the 
reach of any competition. He carried on all the various depart- 
ments of cabinet-making, carving, mounting, and gilding, lock- 
making, and constructing various articles for ships. All the 
bronze ornaments executed in his workshops, were carved, 
mounted, and gilded there. When at the height of his pros- 
perity, he employed no Jess than eight imewras workmen of the 
above-mentioned trades. 

But in modern revolutionary days, it is by no means always 
advantageous to be under the patronage of a crowned head. 
M. Desmalter was a sad example of this fact. The overturn- 
ing of the empire was fatal to his establishment, and caused him 
to undergo enormous losses. It must also be confessed, that 
Desmalter, so eminently endowed as an artist, was unfortunately 
wanting: in those qualities so important to every one engaged in 
trade. Among men exclusively devoted to the fine arts, we 
often meet with this incompatibility between the warmth of 
creative genius, and the conte the cool calculation so gene- 
rally useful. 

In consequence of these reverses, Desmalter, giving way to 
his feelings of disgust and disappointment, abandoned the es- 
tablishment to his son, who not only succeeded in saving it from 
ruin, but restored it to all its former glory. The father, freed 
from the restraints of business, went to England, in accordance 
with an invitation from George IV., who intrusted him with the 
refurnishing of Windsor Castle. He had made and sent to Rio 
Janeiro a’ quantity of splendid furniture for the apartments of 
Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil. 

His son, mentioned above, M. Jacob Desmalter (George Al- 
phonse), born on the 21st of February, 1799, first studied ar- 


DESMALTER, JUNIOR. 269 


chitecture under the skilful direction of Percier. Numerous 
medals, obtained at the monthly competitions, not only attested 
his rapid advancement, but predicted a brilliant career, when 
unfortunate circumstances obliged him to leave this branch of 
the arts for that in which his father had gained so high a repu- 
tation. . 

The embarrassments we have already mentioned were a severe 
shock to the Desmalter establishment. With the laudable ob- 
ject of arresting its downward course, the young architect 
struggled against inconceivable difficulties, and expended much 
money. He took the complete direction of it on the first of 
January, 1825, and offered a vigorous and honourable resistance 
to all opposing circumstances; proving, by his example, that 
courage, perseverance, and honesty may extricate a man from 
the most alarming difficulties. 

Under the restoration, the Duchess de Berri employed him to 
furnish the Chateau de Rosny. Afterwards he made furniture, 
under the direction of M. Fontaine, for the Palais Royal and 
the Chateau de Neuilly. In this latter residence the ceilings 
are all of wood-work, ornamented with incrustations. 

He also executed all the furniture for the new part of the 
Hotel de Ville, as well as the wood-work in the rooms of the 
Conseil d’ Etat in the palace on the Quai d’Orsay. 

Jacob Desmalter, junior, like his father, obtained the gold 
medal, offered for excellence in his art, at all the exhibitions. 
This privilege seems to have belonged to the family since 1806. 
He is now beyond the reach of the ever varying caprices of fortune. 
Some of his incrusted furniture is to be compared with the ex- 
quisite productions of Boule, the celebrated cabinet-maker in 
Louis XIV.’s time. Let any one who wishes to be convinced 
of the taste displayed in Desmalter’s furniture, but pay a visit 
io his establishment, in the Rue des Vinaigriers, Faubourg Saint 
Martin. 

Amongst those who have distinguished themselves in this uni- 
yersally esteemed line, I will mention MM. Werner, Bellangé, 

23 * 


270 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS 


Meynard, and Ficher, who received silver medals, either for 
beauty of forms or for improvements of construction. M. Mey- 
nard has introduced incrustations of copper. M. Ficher has 
distinguished himself by beautiful ornaments of bronze. It 
‘must also be remarked that M. Berg uses copper for ornament- 
ing furniture, with greater success than any one else. 

We are now to speak of a branch of art which deserves par- 
ticular mention. This act of justice is due to the ingenious artist 
who carried the construction of ship-furniture to a great degree 
of perfection. 

Jean Antoine Lehaene, born at Paris on the 8th of Novem- 
ber, 1784, succeeded his father, at an early age, as a cabinet- 
maker, and continued the old establishment with great success. 

In 1814, when commercial relations were renewed between 

France and the colonies, M. Lehaene made many exportations 
to India, and various parts of America. Charged, in 1826, by 
the minister of war, with the execution of models of all the ar- 
ticles necessary for furnishing the vessels of the royal navy, this 
skilful artist fullfilled the commission with so much ‘accuracy 
and good taste, that, upon examination, no alterations were deem- 
ed necessary in his plan. This success gained for M. Lehaene 
the post of maker of ship-furniture not only for all our vessels, 
but also for all our maritime establishments, both at home and 
abroad. . 
A fortunate circumstance gave still greater encouragement to ~ 
M. Lehdaene’s talents. In 1829, the intendant of the royal fur- 
niture, after an exhibition of the articles produced by numerous 
Parisian artists, intrusted him with the furnishing of the palaces, 
thateaux, and other royal residences. 

But the most difficult, and most remarkable operation per- 
formed by M. Lehaene, and the one which has done him the 
greatest honour, is incontestably the complete fitting up of ten 
steam-vessels employed for carrying the mails to the different 
ports of the Mediterranean. In less than a year this vast un- 
dertaking was completely realized. All the necessary articles 


ae Fe 
LEHAENE. 271 


were made at Paris, and afterwards transferred to the different 
ports where the packets had been built. The workmanship was 
so excellent, and the solidity and strength of every part so re- 
markable, that, during the wear of continual use since 1836, 
the injuries attendant upon sea-voyages, and the continual varia- 
tions of temperature, they have experienced no material changes 
for the worse, and have consequently required no repairs. ; 

An undertaking of so much importance, executed with so 
much success, has necessarily raised M. Lehaene to the highest 
rank as an artist. No one can dispute the pre-eminence with 
him in this branch of art, which he has brought to a new and 
great de®ree of perfection. 





> - 


CHAPTER LV. 


IRON. 


me) IDE by side with the beautiful art of work- 
X4) ing in wood, stands one which, originating 
| } in modern days, threatens soon to rival it, 
since it lends a valuable assistance to ar- 





ternal decoration of edifices. ‘Khe reader 
will readily discern that we speak of the 
use of iron for ornamental purposes, due to the learned and 
ingenious researches of a former member of the Polytechnic 
School, M. Gandillot. : 

Jean Dénis Gandillot, born at Besancon on the 12th of March, 
1797, was one of the most distinguished students in the Poly- 
technic School, when this establishment was abandoned in 1816. 
The career which he had chosen was rudely closed before him ; 
his youthful anticipations were destroyed ; but, far from being 
discouraged, his anxiety to rise to eminence of some sort but 
increased. The mechanical arts, with their vast profits, attrac- 
ted his attention, and to them did he devote himself. But, 
leaving the beaten track, and guided by the theoretical knowledge 
gained during his close attention to study, he opened a path 
for himself in which no one had yet trodden. 

In 1825, he took a high rank as an artist by the establishment 
of a new art known by the name of Fers creux lumines. 
Among his productions, are to be remarked gratings of every 
description for balconies, balustrades, and railings, bedsteads of 
various forms, garden-seats, and furniture, such as stools, chairs, 
arm-chairs, tables, flower-stands, &c., &c. ‘ And,”’ as remarks 
M. Charles Dupin, “all these articles are executed with taste 
and accuracy.” 

(272) 


GANDILLOT. 273 


During the first ten years of Gandillot’s efforts, the hollow 
pieces of iron used by him were nothing but tubes made of cast 
iron when Cold, the edges of which touched each other though 
not welded. For gratings and other purposes requiring strength 
and solidity, he filled these tubes with a cement similar to that 
used by fountain-makers. This prevents internal oxidation, and 
is capable of resisting the action of a saw. For transverse 
pieces in gratings, he used four-sided pieces of iron, also hollow, 
and composed of two three-sided bands placed one within the 
other, so as to form the four faces of the square bar; but the 
two vertical faces were formed of two thicknesses of iron. 

Desirous of giving his art every improvement of which it was 
susceptible, M. Gandillot made several journeys to England in 
1838. It was at that time that he brought into use in France, 
a method of welding square or round tubes of sheet iron. 
Welded in this manner, these tubes were substituted for those in 
former use made of cold sheet iron. 

This improvement, all-important as it was, was but the pre- 
lude toa still more fortunate innovation, if we consider its results. 
The principal object of M. Gandillot’s researches was the sub- 
stitution of iron pipes for those of lead and copper, the only kind 
in previous use in France, and which were extremely inconve- 
nient and often dangerous, whether used for gas, steam, or any 
of their other numerous purposes. | 

Thence ensued the use of furnaces of heated water, first intro- 
duced by Perkins, but due to the useful and philanthropic efforts 
of Gandillot. This most advantageous method of heating 
buildings is in general use in England, not only for public edifices, 
but also for private houses. Gandillot, after a studious atten- 
tion to this subject, was convinced of the great superiority of 
these furnaces over those of France, which gave out heat by 
means of steam or of heated air. In fact, steam-furnaces are so 
expensive, that their use is confined to public buildings, such as 
the Bourse at Paris. As to the heated-air furnaces, besides 
their enormous consumption of fuel, the vitiation of the atmos- 


<niaie —_— —s = « ~— 


974 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


phere of the rooms, the injury done to furniture and hangings, 
and the inequality of the heat diffused throughout the,same apart- 
ment, there is great danger of fire, as was unhappily proved by 
the recent disaster at the Théatre Italien at Paris. ‘Thanks to 
M. Gandillot’s improvements, these inconveniences and dangers 
have disappeared ; in their place we have economy, health, and 
safety, united to an agreeable heat. The pipes made in Gan- 
dillot’s workshops, and destined for hot water furnaces, are 
tried before being used, and found capable of resisting the enor- 
mous pressure of from two to three hundred atmospheres. 





CHAPTER LVI. 


BRONZES. 


N the art of fabricating bronzes, such as gave 
22 Ravrio so high a reputation, we have now occa- 
#2 sion to mention several contemporaneous artists 
7. nearly as distinguished as he. First in order of 
time comes Thomire, who distinguished himself by 
the richness of his work and the beautiful finish of his execu- 
tion. “In 1806,” says M. Charles Dupin, “he obtained the 
gold medal, and since that time, has continued, by his remarkable 
performances, to sustain the character he then acquired. It is 
glorious to remain in this manner at the head of one’s art.” 
These words are taken from the report of the committee upon 
the exhibition of 1834. 

Side by side with M. Thomire, stands M. Deniére, who, 
although he rose to eminence many years later, is no less a great 
and distinguished artist. 

Born at Paris on the 17th of August, 1775, M. Deniére left 
that city as a volunteer in 1795, in one of the three Parisian 
battalions who were equipped at their own expense. A short 
time afterwards, he was employed in the fabrication of arms ; 
‘and was afterwards attached to an establishment of the kind at 
Paris. In 1796, the government sent him to Constantinople in 
the capacity of machinist. 

Upon his return to Paris, in 1798, we find him working as a 
journeyman-turnerin copper. He afterwards began to work by 
himself at his‘lodgings, and collected around him several work- 
men who placed themselves under his direction. Economy, 
labour, and perseverance, brought him a rich harvest. In 1804, 
he was himself able to undertake the making of small bronze 


ornaments, and in the fourteen succeeding years, his establish- 
(275) © 





276 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


ment increased, although he experienced considerable losses 
during the commercial difficulties which attended the downfall 
of the empire. 

‘At the exhibition of manufactured articles in 1819, M. 
Deniére obtained the silver medal. This was but the prelude to 
greater triumphs. Four years afterwards, he obtained the 
gold medal for his beautiful productions, and in the three ex- 
hibitions which have been held since, he has constantly received 
‘the same honourable distinction ; this mazrimum of the rewards 
offered by the government to the artists. 

M. Deniére has long been the object of other honours, in con- 
sequence of the esteem and consideration attached to his talents. 
In 1824, he was elected a member of the Conseil General des 
Manufactures ; in 1827, Charles X. made him a Knight of the 
Legion of Honour; finally, from 1833 to 1837, he fulfilled the 
duties of a judge at the Tribunal de Commerce de la Seine. 

The works which have established this artist’s brilliant repu- 
tation are to be admired, not only for their richness, but also for 
their variety, and still more for the care with which they are 
executed. During the most prosperous years of the restoration, 
M. Deniére displayed much taste in his tables and other articles 
of furniture. It was about that time that ornamental pieces of 
sculpture were made for the dinner-tables of the rich, such as 
groups of Loves and Graces, Bacchantes and Fauns, and vases 
in imitation of the finest antique models, as well as baskets borne 
by elegant canephore. 

In 1838, M. Deniére built a large establishment, embracing, 
upon an extensive scale, all the various branches of his art, in- 
cluding casting, mounting, turning, carving, and gilding. For 
ten years he has employed more than three hundred workmen. 
There was certainly a vast difference between his modest shop, 
when he first began his career, and his present continually in- 
creasing state of prosperity. . Such is the reward to which talent 
may aspire when sustained by good conduct and well-directed 
efforts. 


BRONZE STATUES. 277 


M. Galle is the most fortunate rival of Thomire and Deni¢re, 
‘Like them, he has executed some very remarkable pieces of 
work; like them, also, he has in his possession a collection of 
gold medals. Some of his bronze figures are very large and 
fine; and the exquisite taste of some of his gilded lustres has 
received great praise. 

After these celebrated artists, we may mention various men 
of talent ; among others Ledure and Lerolle, and, as remarkable 
for taste, M. Jeaunest, who has executed some highly valuable 
groups of figures, also a Bacchante seated upon a Goat, and a 
small group representing the Graces, of M. Pradier. 

In modern days, an artist who recalls to us the success of the 
celebrated Balthazar Reller, and his pupil Jacobi, has made 
great improvements in casting. An important matter in the 
casting of bronze, is, that the figure to be obtained be perfect, 
and require nothing beyond being afterwards made smooth 
by mechanical means. When this is the case, as has wisely 
been remarked, the artist who is the inventor of the design, 
finds his idea reproduced with great precision; the somewhat 
to be mistrusted art of the carver, is no longer indispensable to 
palliate irreparable defects; and original performances may be 
obtained at a low price, preserving the beauty and peculiar char- 
acter of the models. 

Such are the results we now owe to the studies and the efforts 
of M. Soyer. The reader is about to learn how many obsta- 
cles opposed this remarkable man in his toilsome road to distinc- 
tion. May his example serve as encouragement to those young 
people who are intimidated by the approach of difficulties! 

Louis Claude Ferdinand Soyer, born at Paris in 1786, 
began life as a carver. But, as soon as his apprenticeship was 
»xpired, he was seized with a military ardour, and entered a regi- 
ment of marine artillery. He soon ascertained that this 
was not the sphere for the developement of his talents. In- 
stead of the laurels he had hoped to reap, he met with captivity. 
After five years spent upon the seas, he fell into the hands of 


278 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


the English, who kept him a prisoner five years longer, giving 
him full time to reflect upon the vicissitudes of a soldier’s life. 

The peace of 1814 set him free from his chains ; and, return- 
ing to Paris, he was about to enter the service of a druggist, for 
want of better occupation. 

Fortunately for the arts, Soyer felt a longing to return to his 
old art of carving. He had the wisdom and courage to enter 
upon a second apprenticeship; and, although he had no other 
means of subsistence than his labour, he was contented to earn 
but thirty sous a day, and applied himself with the greatest in- 
dustry, in the hope of becoming a superior workman. 

At the expiration of this period of trial, the sanctuary of arts 
opened its doors to Soyer, or, to speak in plain terms, from being 
an apprentice he became a master, and so skilful a one, as to 
exhibit to the public several bronze statues; that of Love after 
Chaudet, a Jupiter Serapis, and others. ‘These master-pieces 
gained him the gold medal, and shortly afterwards, in 1822, 
the government sent him to Italy, free of expense, for the pur- 
pose of prosecuting his studies. 

After two years spént in this manner, Soyer returned to 
Paris; but his pecuniary resources were now all exhausted, for, 
in order to obtain all possible advantage from his sojourn in Italy, 
he had not hesitated to sacrifice the little he possessed. This 
augured ill for the art of casting, in a deprivation of the great 
and important improvements of which he had discovered the se- 
cret. Fortunately, Soyer met with a capitalist, who was pa- 
triotic enough to endeavour to put the artist’s plans into execu- 
tion. They formed the Ingé and Soyer association, which has 
given rise toso many improvements in casting during the last 
ten years. These two gentlemen have certainly not had occa- 
sion to regret the generous confidence they placed in each other, 
at a time when Soyer was poor, and had no security but his 
word. 

To simplify the process of casting, and to reduce the price of 


INGE AND SOYER. 279 


their labours, in a manner previously deemed impossible, were 
the objects of M. Soyer’s successful efforts. 

The works which have established his reputation are nume- 
rous. The most important at present are the statue of King 
Stanislaus; the tomb of Count Demidoff, composed of ten fig- 
ures; the model of Napoleon, now at Versailles; the statues of 
Fénélon, and Montaigne; of Chevert, of Marshal Mortier, of 
Ambroise Paré, and of Guttenberg ; Piety, and two adoring An- 
gels, in the church of Notre Dame de Lorette; the equestrian 
statue of Philibert Emmanuel, the admiration of all Paris, placed 
originally in the great court of the Louvre, but which is at 
present at Turin; finally, the column of July, with its immense 
capital, formed in one single casting, notwithstanding that its 
circumference is eighty-eight feet. 

We must also mention the Hercules after Canova, the 
Magdalene, Michael Angelo’s Moses, and figures of animals 
which required scarcely a touch from the graver and the file, so 
excellent was the casting. 

Services of so high a nature did not remain unrewarded. 
The Ingé and Soyer establishment obtained the silver medal at 
the exhibition of 1834, and the gold medal at the exhibition of 
1839. In addition, M. Soyer himself received a platina medal 
and a gold one from the Society for Encouragement, a gold me- 
dal from the king of Sardinia, and the badge of the Legion of 
Honour at the last exhibition. 


CHAPTER LVII. 


CARPETS—FURNITURE-STUFFS—WALL-PAPER, &c., &c. 


bieeaGa'<e@ ARPET-MAKING, now brought to so 
“O5 p>, great a degree of perfection by Aubus- 
Jf son’s establishment, owes important im- 
Sv provements and economical processes to 
2 )s the efforts of the celebrated Chevenard, 
who, in various other ways, has laid 
claim to the gratitude of all those inte- 





rested in the arts. 

Francois Marie Chevenard, the son of Francois Chevenard, 
a citizen and manufacturer of Lyons, and Catherine Basset de 
la Marelle, was born at Lyons, on the 17th of June, 1753, and 
consecrated his youth to the study of the arts, and especially 
to that of flower-painting. Devarennes, a painter, his master, 
took great pride in his pupil’s success. The young Chevenard 
soon painted flowers with remarkable talent. His paintings 
were much admired; for it could not be otherwise in a city 
where this style of painting is much in request, on account of 
its application to silks of high value. 

This young artist succeeded his father as a silk manufacturer, 
in 1780. In his shops stuffs destined for the countries of the 
Levant were fabricated; and a magnificent collection to serve 
for furniture for the Grand Seignior, must not be passed over in 
silence. 

Nevertheless, Chevenard did not forget that he was a painter. 
Lyons possessed no establishment for the painting of wall-paper. 
He succeeded in founding one, and his talents as an artist soon 
procured him a high reputation in this department. This esta- 
blishment having been destroyed, in 1793, at the siege of Lyons, 


Chevenard, by means of perseverance and labour, raised it from 
(280) 


CHEVENARD, 281 


its ruins, and restored it to its original state, by numerous im- 
provements and inventions, amongst which we must mention 
the invention of muslin paper, which was imitated over all 
France and England. The most ancient manufactory in Paris, 
whieh had also imitated Chevenard’s wall-papers, offered to 
prosecute all the imitators without putting him to the slightest 
expense; but Chevenard made a formal refusal to all such offers. 

Under the empire, Chevenard established a manufactory of 
new stuffs in the old Soubise building. These stuffs were a 
sort of medium between silk and paper hangings. They were 
extremely well received, and adopted in furnishing the imperial 
residences, &c. &c. Napoleon paid a visit to this establishment 
in 1810. He testified to Chevenard all the satisfaction with 
which he beheld his efforts to extend the dominion of national 
industry, and promised him, as encouragement, a gratuitous loan 
of 60,000 francs: this enabled him to extend his manufactory. 
The ‘restitution of this sum to the treasury was made during 
the restoration. It was at the time of this visit that Napoleon 
conceived the project of taking possession of the Soubise build- 
ings, and transferring to them the archives of the country and 
the imperial printing establishment. 

Chevenard took a young relation, Henry Chevenard, into 
partnership with him. They applied themselves diligently to 
the discovery of a means for reducing the prices of carpets,— 
articles at that time only within the reach of the rich. Re- 
wards were offered for such a purpose by the Society for Encou- 
ragement. The Chevenards obtained them. M. Charles Du- 
pin speaks as follows on this subject :— 

*‘ At the same epoch (1823), a great advance was made, by 
the Chevenards, in the economical fabrication of the species of 
carpet called English. ‘These manufacturers obtained the gold 
medal offered, since 1819, for the production of curtains and 
hangings of felt, ornamented with silk and woollen, presenting 
the appearance of richly embroidered stuffs; these are sold at 


four francs a yard. Other carpets and hangings of varnished 
24 * 


282 - . ~~ YLLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


felt are made impervious to dampness by a bituminous composi- 
tion. This material is susceptible of being beautifully orna- 
mented, and is very serviceable for bathing-rooms, eating-rooms, 
&c.; still more economical carpets, made of varnished stuff, ac- 
cording to the English fashion, and various others of many 
kinds. To M. Chevenard are also owing carpets of cow’s-hair, 
sold for from three francs to five and a half the square yard; 
and finally, carpets of thick velvet, of exquisite beauty, suited 
to the higher classes.” 

In 1830, Francois Marie Chevenard, after sixty years of in- 
termission, resumed his early vocation of a flower-painter, and 
exhibited several fine pieces of this kind. He died at Paris on 
the 28th of June, 1835, at the age of eighty-two. 

In remaining under the direction of M. Henri Chevenard, this 
fine establishment for carpets and hangings has increased the 
importance given it by his predecessor. In 1834, this able — 
manufacturer obtained a renewal of the gold medal decreed to 
him in 1823, for hangings of varnished felt. He presented at 
this exhibition several pieces of furniture in the style of the 
sixteenth century, and even earlier. This furniture of the feudal 
times has been the object of many criticisms, some of them un- 
just; but these have not reached M.Chevenard. The romantic 
style became prevalent, and the arts were obliged to conform 
to its strange and fantastic tastes. M. Chevenard may be said 
to have turned its caprices to great advantage. 

M. M. Atramblé, Briot, & Co., have done much for this 
branch of art. In 1827, they exhibited transparent window- 
blinds, representing Gothic panes of glass and landscapes. 
From that period great improvements have taken place in these 
articles, as may be attested by the gold medal obtained by them. 

We have already made mention of the great Aubusson esta- 
blishment. ‘The present is an excellent opportunity for doing 
justice to the industrious and skilful man who has so greatly 
contributed to its celebrity. 

Charles Jean Sallandrouze de Laadibasis) born at Paris on 


CARPETS. 283 


the 27th of March, 1808, was but eighteen when the premature 
death of his father, the proprietor of the royal carpet factory of 
Aubusson, caused the whole burden of the establishment to fall 
upon him. Notwithstanding his extreme youth, Sallandrouze, 
by his active intelligence, soon showed himself able to sustain 
the high reputation hitherto enjoyed by his father, who had ob- 
tained the silver medal in 1822 and 1823. At the exhibition in 
1827, he was equally honoured. Encouraged by his success, he 
went to England, and brought back a colony of workmen, and 
naturalized at Aubusson the fabrication of various English stuffs, 
which, by their low prices, were soon placed within the reach of 
the middling classes, thus diffusing advantages hitherto confined 
to the rich. 

It was a great matter to have liberated France from the 
onerous tribute previously paid to England. M. Sallandrouze 
did more; he succeeded in finding among the English themselves 
(who are so proud of their manufactures), a market for his 
splendid carpets, which were very superior to any made in Eng- 
land. Brilliant exhibitions, where were collected all the finest 
articles of English manufacture of every description, obliged the 
British to recognise the superiority of our carpets; and at 
present, the demands of England absorb a great proportion of 
the products of the Aubusson establishment. 

The exhibition of 1834 was an occasion of new triumph to — 
M. Sallandrouze. The following are the words of M. Charles 
Dupin: “ M. Sallandrouze’s collection of carpets were, without 
comparison, the finest, richest, and most varied, to be seen at 
the exhibition; covering and ornamenting the entire walls and 
floor of an immense room, arranged expressly for the reception 
of these magnificent stuffs. 

“The most sumptuous kind was represented by the large 
carpet destined for the new gallery i in the Palace of the Tuile- 
ries. In this carpet, beauty of design, fineness of texture, and 
splendour of colouring and shading, dispute the palm. 

* Amongst those of inferior quality, were remarked Scotch 


284 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


carpets, having no wrong side, another kind called Moguettes, 
hearth-rugs, table-covers representing beautiful landscapes, and 
oil-cloths for summer use. All these are of various kinds and 
prices, down to the cheapest, and consequently the most useful.” 

A late and beautiful introduction is that of Persian and 
Turkish designs upon carpets. The former are particularly re- 
markable for elegance and grace. 

The committee rewarded the author of these magnificent pro- 
ductions by the gold medal ; and the king made him a Knight 
of the Legion of Honour. 

This continued success elevated M. Sallandrouze to a high 
place in the public esteem. He was made President of the 
Aubusson Consulting Council of Arts and Manufactures, a 
member of the General Council of Manufactures and Commerce, 
and finally, in 1839, a member of the central committee for. 
deciding upon the merits of articles exhibited, and giving 
rewards. He attained the summit of his career at an age when 
others are struggling with the difficulties always attendant upon 
the first steps of the road to distinction. 
~ M. Sallandrouze, having been made reporter to the com- 
mittee on patents, published some very judicious opinions upon 
the laws which govern that subject. Many collections have 
reason to thank him for excellent articles, in which he has 
treated of manufacturing subjects of the highest interest, with a 
knowledge and an accuracy which render these papers extremely 
valuable. In practice, as well as in theory, the illustrious manu- 
facturer of Aubusson unites claims which may one day call him 
to sit in the Chamber of Peers. . 

Among the manufacturers who have the most contributed to 
the improvement of carpets, with the object of placing them 
within the reach of those of moderate fortune, we will mention 
Rogier, Jobert Lucas and Louis Ternaux, Rose-Abraham and 
Armonville, as well as the Brunet brothers. All these have 
more or less reduced the prices of carpets by simplifying their 
fabrication. 


ef 


CHAPTER LVIII. 


ORNAMENTAL ARTS, WOOLLEN STUFFS, &c. 


sf CHARLES DUPIN has not omitted to re- 
2 mark that the restoration was a most flourish- 
: ing epoch for those arts which tended to or- 
 nament churches, from the making of the 
* simple stole to the construction of the bishop’s 
mitre ; the lawn sleeves to the cope and cha- 
“suble. These were originally remarkable 
for splendour alone; they have since become distinguished for 

taste. 

In fact, all the arts, which had in any manner reference to 
clothing of any description, progressed in a very rapid degree, 
after the return of the Bourbon family to the throne of France. 
Many names became distinguished or worthy to be so; and we 
shall mention a few of those which rose to the greatest eminence. 

At the head of our proprietors of spinning-mills, we shall 
place Eugene Griolet, who has made great improvements in the 
spinning of carded wool, and who alone employs about fifteen 
hundred workmen. 

For the weaving of fulled and figured woollens, we must 
mention Terneaux, senior, of whom we have spoken in a former 
part of our work; Cunin Gridaine, who ranks high as a manu- 
facturer in Sedan, and has obtained several gold medals, and 
fulfilled the functions of a member of the central committee on 
the exhibitions of manufactured articles, and been called to the 
important duties of the Ministere du Commerce; Frederic 
Jourdain and Riboulleau, manufacturers at Louviers; Bacot, 
father and son, at Sedan; Louis Robert Flavigny and son, at 
Elbeuf; Guibal Anne Veaute, at Castres; the Chayaux bro- 


thers, at Sedan; Dannet, father and sons, and the Aubé brothers 
(285) 





286 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


and Co., at Beaumont le Roger, in the department of L’Eure ; 
Berteche Lambquin and son, at Sedan; Chefdrue and Chauy- 
reulx, at Elbeuf; Victor and Auguste Grandin, also at Elbeuf ; 
Lemaire and Randoing, at Abbeville; and lastly, Julien, 
Guibal junior, and Co., at Castres. . All these manufacturers 
have obtained the gold medal, some of them more than once ; 
several have been honoured with the badge of the Legion of 


iH a 


Honour, in reward for their labours, and for the improvements . 


introduced by them into their branch of art. 

For another description of woollen stuffs, the manufacturing 
establishment of Paturle, Lupin and Co. is especially distin- 
guished. Their goods are exported to the Netherlands, Eng- 
land, Italy, and America, where they sustain the reputation of 
their able manufacturers. It is a well-known fact that the 
head of this establishment, after receiving several gold medals, 
and taking his place in the committee so often mentioned, enjoys 
at the present day the honour of a seat in the Chamber of Peers. 

Next in rank are Eggly, Roux and Co., whose goods unite 
strength to beauty ; Griolet, already mentioned as the proprietor 
of spinning-mills; and especially Rey, who has evinced so much 
talent in his combinations of silk and wool, whence result the 
beautiful and varied materials known by the names of Pondi- 
cherry, Sumatra, Golconda, &c. 

I will also cite Louis Aubert, of Rouen, for woven stuffs of 
plain woollen; the Henriots, of Reims, for stuffs lightly filled 
and not figured; Fourninal, father and son, of Rethel, for me- 
tinos. If I were to continue the list of all those who have won 
bronze and silver medals, it would soon extend beyond our 
limits. 

In the art of dyeing threads and stuffs, the highest honours 
belong to the unfortunate Beauvisage, who produced a beautiful 
scarlet with lake-lake; to Gonin, of Lyons, who used madder 
alone; to Raymond, who discovered the secret of substituting 
Prussian blue for indigo. 

Many improvements have been made in colouring sik. hv 


KOECHLIN. 287 


three of Roard’s pupils—Perdreau, of Tours, Renard and Bru- 
nel, of Avignon. Widmer of Jouy, has discovered a fine green, 
with which he colours cotton stuffs, without a successive applica- 
tion of yellow and blue. The English offered a reward of 
50,000 francs for a similar discovery. More recently, Guymet, 
guided by a knowledge of chemistry, has succeeded in producing 
by artificial means the substance called ultramarine ; one for- 
_ merly more valuable than gold, and of as fine a quality as that 
formerly extracted grain by grain from lapis lazuli with great 
difficulty ; and what adds greatly to the value of the discovery 
is, that the new and abundant ultramarine is two hundred times 
cheaper than the old. 

As we mentioned before, the arts which relate to clothing 
were ina flourishing condition during the restoration, on account 
of the splendour required for sacerdotal vestments, and various 
ornamental articles for churches. The magnificence displayed 
at the coronation of Charles X. was a proof of this, and of the 
manufacturing treasures F tance had accumulated during the 
calm of peace. 

The Koechlin family, so celebrated in the art of printing 
goods, have evinced the same activity in continuing as in creat- 
ing it. It was Daniel Koechlin who discovered the chemical 
agents capable of acting upon Turkey red. The glory of 
having solved this important problem, gained him the homage 
of our neighbours the English. 

* After the peace of 1814,” says M. Charles Dupin, “ this 
celebrated manufacturer visited England. The entrance to a 
manufactory of printed cottons was refused him; he sent a small 
pattern of one of his own pieces of goods to the proprietor, who, 
filled with admiration, opened his doors to Daniel Koechlin, 
astonished that any one who was the author of a similar mas- 
ter-piece, should come to England to gain information.” 

Besides Daniel Koechlin, the art of cotton-printing claims 
several other members of this honourable family : the Koechlin 
brothers, Grosjean Koechlin, Schlumberger, Koechlin and Co., al] 


288 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


established at Mulhausen, and all in the habit of receiving gold 
medals at the exhibitions. Their reputation is spread over all 
the world. Numerous similar establishments were formed in all 
places. Gros, Odier, Roman and Co., whose manufactory is es- 
tablished at Wesserling (Haut Rhin), executed all the trans- 
formations of cotton with rare excellence, and deserve to rank 
highest, as well for the design, colouring, and delicacy of the 
prints, as for the excellence of the material. Dolfus Mieg and — 
Co., at Mulhausen, are not less distinguished for skill, and the 
extent of their commercial operations. ‘The Hausman brothers, 
of Ingelbach (Haut Rhin), were the first who applied litho- 
graphic engraving to making impressions upon cotton, woollen, 
and silk, a method uniting beauty to cheapness. They also ex- 
celled in the use of the double roller. Hartmann, father and 
son, of Munster, obtained superior results in every species of 
printing ; and excel, also, in the simple kind, in which they dis- 
play a taste and beauty of execution which leave nothing to be 
desired. Adrien Japuis, a pupil of Oberkampf, is the founder 
of the Clay establishment (Seine et Marne); by incessantly re- 
newed efforts, efforts continued by his children, he has succeed- 
ed in obtaining results which do honour to the nation. It would 
be unjust to omit to mention Hailmann and Hofer, of Mulhau- 
sen, who, since 1819, have obtained the gold medal, as well as 
the Koechlins and Dolfus Mieg. 


CHAPTER LIX. 


CASHMERE SHAWLS, &c. 


= HE spinning of the cashmere down is a fortunate 
innovation which has enabled this material to vie 
with the various new stuffs obtained by the mix- 
ture of woollen and silk. Hindenlang deserves 
we) _to be considered as the founder of this new branch 
of art, which now occupies millions of workmen. He was the 
first who established this sort of spinning, and produced, in 1813, 
the first cashmere threads suitable for being woven into shawls. 

M. Joseph Ulric Hindenlang, the eldest of his family, was 
born at Basle, in Switzerland, in April, 1795, and began his 
manufacturing career at an early age: since, in 1813, we find 
him already superintending the spinning of the cashmere down. 
This branch of trade, brought to a great degree of perfection 
at the present day, is a source of great wealth to the country, 
and owes its rapid progress to the constant efforts of Hinden- 
lang. Ambitious to ameliorate the condition of his productions, 
he eluded no difficulty (and. he encountered numerous ones), he 
avoided no sacrifice to bring it to perfection. 

Since the exhibition of 1819, where he obtained the silver 
medal, Hindenlang has always been the object of the commit- 
tee’s highest approbation. In 1823, the gold medal was de- 
creed to him, and he was, besides, made a member of the Gene- 
ral Council of Mannfactures, and a knight of the Legion of 
Honour. At the exhibitions of 1827 and of 1834, Hindenlang 
again took the gold medal, an honour which was confirmed to 
him in- 1839, not only for the spinning of cashmere down, but 
also for that of merino wool—a branch which he united to his 
former one in 1836, and in which he has made such improve- 


ments, that at the last exhibition he presented merino threads of 
25 (289) 





290 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. ‘ 


a fineness previously unknown. These extra fine merino threads, 
which no one had yet undertaken to spin, have become of gene- 
ral use since that epoch, and have given birth to a number of 
novel articles, the fabrication of which was impossible with the 
woollen threads in former use. This remarkable innovation was 
an important service rendered to the trade in woollen goods. 
The committee appreciated it; and the government, eager to 
notice the useful labours of Hindenlang, conferred upon him the 
grade of officer of the Legion of Honour, at the close of the 
exhibition. 

In modern days, M. Lemare has gained a high reputation by 
the constancy with which he has devoted himself to the art of 
making ingenious and economical apparatus. Every one is ac- 
quainted with his cooking apparatus, which has been so often 
imitated. | 

Towards the end of the year 1820, he made public some new 
cooking-vessels called aufoclaves. ‘This invention is, in fact, no 
other than Paptn’s vessel applied to domestic purposes, and es- 
pecially to the cooking of food. The autoclave vessels have 
the adyantage of making good soup, and of cooking meat in 
less than half an hour. But this apparatus requires great cau- 
tion. It has been the cause of terrible accidents. Who does 
not remember the tragic death of the singer Naldi? This art- 
ist, having procured an autoclave vessel, wished to put it to 
proof in presence of several of his friends. Whilst the guests 
were awaiting the result of his experiment, the vessel exploded, 
and spread terror among the beholders. Several were wounded ; 
Naldi was killed on the spot. 

Lemare has three times obtained the silver medal at the exhi- 
bitions. In 1834, the committee made honourable mention of 
an invention of his for baking bread. 

The stoves and culinary utensils of M. Harel are of great 
use in domestic economy ; they are much sought after by house- 
keepers. Their inventor received the silver medal at every ex- 
hibition since that of 1819. 


(i 


ay 





Lerebours. 


CHAPTER LX. ‘ 


HOROLOGY—OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, &ce. 


OROLOGY, in its different branches, is 
now about to offer to our view numerous 
celebrated artists, many of whom possess 
hereditary talents, and have met with he- 
reditary honours. 

\\\ WX In nautical and astronomical horology, 
we have M. Bréguet, the nephew who carries on his uncle’s stu- 
dies with great success, and retains the gold medal in the family ; 
the Berthond brothers, whose chronometer has excited the ad- 

~ miration of the learned men of the Paris Observatory; Perce- 
let, father and son, to whom is owing the counter so valuable 


for measuring the precise duration of astronomical phenomena, 
(291) 





292 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


and admirably executed apparatus for the demonstration of the 
most remarkable escapements. ~M. Motel, marine chronometer 
maker, is well known for the excellent execution and extreme 
regularity of his instruments. 

For horological mechanism on a large scale, the Lepaute fa- 
mily hold the highest rank. To M. Lepaute, junior, the city 
of Paris owes the fine clock in the Palace of the Bourse. That 
in the Compiégne Palace is also his work, and he is also the 
author of the clock in L’Hotel des Portes, where he has over- 
come great local difficulties. 

We must also mention M. Wagner (Henri Bernard), who, 
among other remarkable pieces of mechanism, has constructed 
three fine clocks. — ~ | 

In domestic horology, such as relates to timepieces and com- 
mon clocks, M. Pons de Paul is especially distinguished, and 
has received two silver medals, and three of gold. He is also 
the author of numerous works for watches, executed with great 
precision. He presented, in 1834, a new escapement, remarka- 
ble for its great simplicity, being somewhat similar to Woet’s 
wheel-work in theory. 

After him come Garmier, Deshays, Vincenti, Hanriot, and 
Robert, who excel in the various kinds of clock-making. 

It is impossible to cite all those who are distinguished in this 
learned and ingenious branch of science. The Encyclopedia 
indicates several, under the article Watch, which treats of the 
different branches of horology ; mentioning M. Brocot, of Paris, 
as always occupied in improving his clocks by new and import- 
ant processes, so that without a proportionate increase of price,’ 
we have great ameliorations in pendulums, &c. 

As to watches, none are able to compete with those of the 
Japy family, whose immense establishment, founded in 1780, is 
situated at Beaucourt, a village in Béfort (Haut Rhin). It em- 
braces all the departments of house-clock, watch, pendulum, and 
lamp-making, as well as lock-making, hardware-making, and 
the construction of kitchen utensils, &c. More than gix thou- 


WATCH-MAKING, 295 


sand persons, of all ages, are employed in this, as it were, col- 
lection of manufactories. The following is an account of the 
origin of it:— 

Frederic Japy, the son of a skilful village blacksmith, went to 

Switzerland at an early age to study watch-making, with a dis- 
tinguished watch-maker named Perrelet. Returning to Beau- 
court after an apprenticeship of eighteen months, he continued 
to work there for his master. Having great fondness for his 
profession, combined with uncommon industry, he soon found 
himself at the head of several apprentices, and established at 
his father’s house a little body of watch-makers. But the daily 
increasing: number of his workmen outgrew the limits of this 
small dwelling, and he left Beaucourt accompanied by them all, 
to establish himself at Montbéliard. Not being a citizen of 
this place, public jealousy was on the alert to speak ill of him, 
as is so often the case. Frederic Japy resolved to leave this 
place; and returning to Beaucourt, succeeded, by dint of labour 
and economy, in constructing a building of sufficient size to con- 
tain all his workmen, as well as his sixteen children. 
The necessity for providing for so large a family obliged him 
to bring all his energies into play. He invented various im- 
provements in watches, and for these he had a good sale at 
Neufchitel, in Switzerland. His establishment soon became 
known; he enlarged it in proportion to his increasing profits. 
Finally, in 1806, after obtaining honourable mention at the 
exhibition, Frederic Japy retired from business with a considera- 
ble fortune, leaving his establishment to his sons, who are now 
the proprietors, under the firm of Japy brothers. 

Frederic Guillaume Japy, eldest son of the founder of 
the Japy establishment, is at present the head of the fa- 
mily. The necessity for liberating themselves from the enor- 
mous debt contracted with their co-heirs, inspired them with the 
idea of increasing their establishment, and carrying to a still 


more extended degree their improvements in watches, as well as 
25* 


294: ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


uniting to this branch of industry those of clock-making, lock- 
making, hardware, &c. &c., as mentioned before. 

Their situation at Beaucourt becoming too circumscribed for 
the exercise of so many branches of art, they removed to the 
department of Doubs, a short distance, and there established 
four successive factories. Hardly had they taken possession of 
the new establishments, when the allied armies a second time in- 
vaded France (1815). At the instigation of those who were 
inimical to the establishment, these foreign troops not only de- 
stroyed all the machinery belonging to the Japy brothers, but 
set fire to the various buildings and burnt them to the ground. 
The loss was estimated at 1,800,000 francs. Fortunately, the 
new factories at Doubs were not involved in this disaster, 
and the Japy family, enjoying a solid reputation for loyalty, 
had no difficulty in finding capital. In the space of eight 
months, Beaucourt arose from its ruins, as if by magic. Since 
then, its prosperity has not ceased to increase. ‘The various 
branches of art there carried on, contribute in a great degree to 
the well-being of the country, since the inhabitants of all the 
neighbouring. villages, including a circuit of from two to four 
leagues. The wages of the labourers vary according to their 
capacity, intelligence, and skill, from five sous to five francs. 
The Japy brotheyg are now able to sell a wheel-work for two 
francs, and even at one franc five sous, which, before the intro- 
duction of their valuable improvements, could not be had for Jess 
than seven francs. 

The Japy brothers obtain the highest reward at every exhi- 
bition. M. Charles Dupin said of them in 1854, “‘ These dis- 
tinguished manufacturers, already mentioned as having gained 
the highest rewards for their utensils, hardware, &c., may num- 
ber their establishment among those which do honour to France, 
and, by the various improvements introduced by them, have un- 
doubted claims to the gold medal.” 

If science renders eminent services to art, art is often of great 
importance to science. How limited and uncertdin would be 


TELESCOPES. | 295 


the astronomer’s observations, if he were deprived of the instru- 
ments invented and improved by the optician’s art! How from 
the height of his observatory could he follow the course of a 
comet, and announce its re-appearance, if his eyes were not 
powerfully seconded by the excellent glasses, by means of which 
the heavens are penetrated? 

This art is well adapted to show the great degree of union 
existing between science and art. 

Although England and Germany possess many men who are 
distinguished for the construction of astronomical instruments, 
this branch of optics has made so much progress among us in 
the last half century, that the supremacy here belongs to 
France, as it does in so many other arts. 

If the Germans are proud of their Schroeter, Fraunhofer, and 
Mertz; the English of Herschel, of Troughton, the skilful 
constructor of numerous instruments for the Greenwich Obser- 
vatory, of the ingenious Dollard, the inventor of the combination 
of lenses composed of two kinds of glass, namely, flint glass and 
crown glass; certainly, France can compete with them in the 
list of illustrious names which dread no comparison. 

For instance, have we not Fortin? who has ably seconded 
the labours of the most illustrious men of learning, to whom we 
owe the execution of the improved heliostat, and the great mu- 
ral arch which the Duke d’Angouléme presented to the Paris 
Observatory. M. Fortin received the gold medal at the exhibi- 
tions of 1829 and 1833. 

We have also M. Cauxchoix, whose success, according to 
the reporter of the committee of 1834, has surpassed all that 
has ever been expected of the most skilful European opticians. 
He has furnished excellent telescopes for the observatories at 
Strasbourg, Geneva, Rome, and Brussels, as well as for Ireland, 
Spain, Egypt, and four scientific establishments in the United 
States. It was M. Cauxchoix who constructed the largest 
known objectives. His great telescope is considered equal: in 
power to that of Sir John Herschel, but superior in some other 


296 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


respects. By the invention of new methods for executing simi- 
lar instruments, M. Cauxchoix has rendered eminent services 
to astronomy and working in glass. He has obtained the 
gold medal at every exhibition since 1823. | 

An equally illustrious contemporaneous artist is the celebrated 
Lerebours, optician to the Observatory of Paris, and nautical in- 
strument maker, as well as a member of the Bureau des Longi- 
tudes. 

Noel Jean Lerebours was born at Mortain, on the 25th of 
December, 1764, and was sent to Paris in his childhood to serve 
an apprenticeship to instrument-making. By no means the 
favourites of fortune, his parents had been able to give him but 
a slender education; but his amiability, his orderly habits, and 
extreme industry, soon opened the way to future distinction. 

At the age of twenty, Lerebours worked in his own room; 
with the money he had saved he purchased tools, and five years 
later founded an establishment which prospered from year to 
year, by dint of labour and stuly, combined with many and re- 
peated sacrifices. During ten years of his life, he made a prac- 
tice of devoting three nights in the week to collecting informa- 
tion respecting his art; this assiduity soon repaired the defects 
of his early education. 

At the time of the revolutionary troubles, Lerebours had 
already acquired a great name by the care with which he con- 
structed optical instruments. Under the empire, he stood in the 
foremost rank among artists of his profession. In 1804, Napo- 
leon, intending to go to the camp at Boulogne, expressed to the 
astronomer Delambre a strong desire to possess a good telescope. 
*¢ Sire,” said’ this learned man, “ we can give you a Dollard 
telescope, which we have in use, and your majesty would oblige 
astronomers if you would give us in exchange an excellent five- 
inch glass which M. Lerebours has just completed.” Ts it 
better?” “ Yes, sire.” ‘ Then I will take it myself.” 

In 1812, Lerebours submitted to the inspection of the Aca- 
demy some mirrors for reflecting telescopes, and a number of 


LEREBOURS. 297 


object-glasses of from 97° to 102° diameter. The mirrors, upon 
examination, were found worthy to compete with the best ever 
made in England.. “What we principally admired,” says 
Delambre in his report, “‘ was the accuracy with which his 
instruments were made; in this respect, we cannot praise 
M. Lerebours too highly, for his object-glasses are perfectly 
achromatic, and show the edges of objects witha clearness which 
cannot fail to give entire satisfaction.” 

Lerebours finished, in 1816, a telescope whose speculum was 
19° in diameter. It was at this time, the largest and best re- 
fractor inthe world. This instrument was afterwards purchased 
by the Bureau des Longitudes ; it met with the approbation of the 
Academy of Sciences. Louis X VIII. ordered a telescope for the 
Observatory at Paris, of 0" 240 in diameter, and of only 3" 32 
focus. Lerebours finished this instrument in 1823. The cele- 
brated Herschel, speaking of a-star observed by him in 1825, 
wrote as follows: “I know of but one dioptric telescope by 
means of which this star has been seen double; that is Lerebours’, 
now in the Observatory at Paris, and the object-glass of which, 
like that of Dorpat, is nine inches in diameter, eight and a half 
of which are used.” 

Lerebours took his son into partnership with him for the con- 
struction of these admirable instruments. In 1829, a trial was 
made at the observatory of one of their telescopes, with an 
object-glass of 0" 33 in diameter. These labours, and others 
of the same nature, obtained the suffrages of all who were com- 
petent judges; and no one will be surprised to hear that they 
have constantly won the gold medal at the exhibitions since 
1823. 

Lerebours has been one of those eminent artists who have 
raised France to a level with England in the execution of 
achromatic telescopes. 

“Let us listen,” said M. Charles Dupin in 1834, “to the 
judge-delegates of the Academy of Sciences, in the expression 
of their opinion respecting Lerebours’ instruments: 


“ 298 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


*‘ In the use of telescopes of thirty-nine centimetres, we have 
often observed the obscure and almost imperceptible line which 
indicates that Saturn’s ring is double ; and nevertheless the planet 
was but a short distance above the horizon. . . . . The obser- 

' vations made upon Jupiter have proved that, with respect to 
achromatism, Lerebours has advanced as far as is possible. Among 
his object-glasses, there are some which magnify Jupiter four 
hundred times, without the slightest trace of the primary colours. 
This gives them a decided superiority over the generality of 
telescopes of similar dimensions, hitherto constructed.” ... . 
** After the above-mentioned instruments,” continue the members 
of the Academy, ‘‘ we remain persuaded that no French astro- 
nomer need feel a necessity or a desire for a foreign telescope. 
A merely good telescope only attests excellence of materials 
and a skilful maker; but, when we behold so great a number 
of object-glasses, all fashioned by the same hand, it is impossible 
to refuse our consent to the opinion that it is to his care and 
skill, to his improvements, and his experience, that the artist 
owes so brilliant and lasting a success.” 

** Having done so much, it is difficult to understand how an 
artist can do more, or having done so well, to continue to do so 
well,’’ says M. Charles Dupin. 

Lerebours made great sacrifices in order to introduce the fabri- 
cation of flint glass into France, and especially to obtain it of 
superior quality. He sought fame rather than riches. He died 
on the 13th of February, 1840, deeply regretted by all who had 
been acquainted with the noble qualities of his heart, and the 
modest simplicity of his character. He was a Knight of the 
Legion of Honour, a member of the General Council of Manu- 
factures, and of the Society for Encouragement. 

_ Of late days, a young instrument-maker has outstripped all 
competitors. This is M. Gambey, now a distinguished member 
of the Academy of Sciences. 

Henri Prudence Gambey, born at Troyes, in Champagne, 
established his first claims to notice by a machine for graduating 


* GAMBEY. 299 


astronomical instruments ; by means of this machine, all sorts of 
circles may be‘ divided with the greatest accuracy, without the 
assistance of the human mind. A mechanism placed in an ad- 
joining room executes, by means of a wheel which it turns, the 
graduation of any circle whatever; by means of an apparatus 
of his invention, the circle to be divided may be placed out of 
the centre without causing the slightest eccentricity of gradua- 
tion. Formerly, this eccentricity had always existed, to the 
despair of the artist interested in this subject so important to 
astronomy. M. Gambey has also invented a repeating theodo- 
lite with two circles, the one vertical, the other horizontal. 
The vertical circle is placed eccentrically, as well as the tele- 
scope, which serves to measure the angles; but by a peculiar 
contrivance, the horizontal angles, although measured at the 
circumference of the circle, are submitted to a measurement 
exactly similar to that produced by performing the process in the 
centre of the instrument, and are at the same time corrected of 
all the errors arising from a faulty rectification of the different 
parts of the instrument. 

At the exhibitions of 1819, 1823, 1827, and 1831, M. Gam- 
bey presented various instruments which met with the approba- 
tion of the committee, especially a heliostat, and a compass of 
his invention. | 

The learned reporter to the committee of 1834, after speaking 
of Lenoir, Jecker, and Fortin, and some other skilful instrument- 
makers, says: ) 

«« A still younger artist has risen above all his predecessors? 
For the first time, M. Gambey displayed his instruments at the 
exhibition of 1819; he takes the highest rank by the astonish- 
ing execution of his repeating circles, and various other philoso- — 
sophical and mathematical instruments. In 1827, he surpassed 
himself by a heliostat of a learned composition, and by a meri- 
dian telescope provided with a declination circle. Let us also 
mention his magnificent equatorial, the action of which is much 


admired for its perfect regularity. In this instrument, the polar 


300 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


axis is moved by a peculiar kind of clock machinery adjusted to 
sidereal time.”? 

Such is the perfection now obtained by this eminent artist, 
that in his small theodolites, circles having a circumference of 
nearly eight centimetres, are graduated so regularly and so 
neatly that the observer may read with precision by means of a 
vernier arc of five seconds! These accurate instruments are 
placed within the reach of men of moderate fortune; at the same 
time, their lightness, and small size, render them easy of trans- 
portation in military expeditions, scientific voyages, and geodee- 
tical operations, even im mountainous countries. 

Fifty years ago, all Europe had recourse to England for 
astronomical instruments of this kind; now France supplies the 
more advanced nations, and even England herself. 

In the early ages, when the art of measuring angles was in 
its infancy, instruments of enormous size were used. Such was 
the Osymandias circle, with which the Egyptian priests ohserved 
the progress of the stars. Such a circle, of very great diameter, 
was very inferior in precision to those of M. Gambey, the cir- 
cumference of which does not exceed the breadth of a man’s 
hand. 

Works of so important a nature merited magnificent rewards. 
After having obtained three gold medals at the exhibitions, M. 
Gambey was made a member of the Institute, a Knight of the 
Legion of Honour, and of the order of Leopold of Belgium, a 
member of the Bureau des Longitudes, and of various learned 
Societies. 





CHAPTER LXI. 


AMERICAN MECHANICS AND THEIR INVENTIONS. 


ta LI WHITNEY, the inventor of the cotton gin, 
% was born December 8, 1765, in Westborough, 
Worcester County, Mass. He gave early silly 
cations of the mechanical genius which after- 
wards rendered him remarkable. During the 
Revolutionary war, and when but fifteen or six- 
teen years of age, he suggested to his father a 
plan for making nails, an article which then commanded a high price. 
His father having procured for him a few tools, he entered upon 
his labour with much spirit; and though working alone, he was 
soon enabled to set up a small manufactory whose profits amply. 
repaid his enterprising labours. 

In 1789, after having struggled through many difficulties, he 
entered Yale College. It was soon after taking his degree, in 1792, 
that he conceived the germ of that discovery which subsequently 
rendered his name illustrious. He was then employed at Savan- 
nah, in making a kind of frame-work called tambour, in the family 
of Mrs. Greene, wife of General Greene. On one occasion this lady 

26 (301) 





802 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


‘introduced him to a party of visitors, principally officers of the 
army, who in social conversation had been regretting the tedious- 
ness of the process by which at that time cotton staple was sepa- 
rated from the seed. Then men, women, children and slaves were 
accustomed to meet in the evening and pick the cotton. The se- 
paration of one pound was, by this process, the day’s work of a 
woman. Mrs. Greene introduced her young friend to the compa- 
ny as one who could make any thing. The result proved that her 
esteem was not misplaced. Although, previous to this, Whitney 
had never seen cotton seed, yet he at once entered upon the task 
which this interview suggested to him. ' He was furnished with a 
room to work in, by a Mr. Miller, to whom he had communicated 
his designs; and here, under the disadvantage of being obliged to 
manufacture his own tools, and draw his wire, he was now in an 
occupation befitting his genius; and the zeal with which he de- 
voted himself to it excited the curiosity of all his acquaintances. 
On May 29, 1793, Miller entered with him into, partnership, 
agreeing to furnish the funds requisite to the undertaking, on con- 
dition that “the profits and advantages arising therefrom, as well as 
all privileges and emoluments to be derived from patenting, making, 
vending and working the same, should be mutually and equally 
shared between them.” Before the close of the year the machine 
was nearly completed. 

But Whitney was not permitted to enjoy uninterruptedly the: 
reward of his.persevering labours. The people soon became ap- 
prised of his invention, and so intense was the excitement caused 
by it, that a party broke into his room by night and carried off the 
machine. Not having secured his patent, Whitney had the mor- 
tification to behold machines constructed on his own plan going 
into operation in every important cotton district of the State. Then 
began that long and vexatious dispute, whose object was to wrest 
from the laborious mechanic the fruits of his exertions, and which 
rendered his life, during many years, a condition of turmoil, anxiety, 
and disappointment. Our limits will not admit an account of these, 
nor of the numerous lawsuits to which he was subjected, nor the 


WHITNEY. : 308 


vast expense which he incurred in efforts to establish his legitimate 
claims. Few men could have sustained the fatigue and privations 
he underwent, or borne up under his complicated vexations. Some- 
times his health was seriously affected, at others his life was jeo- 
pardized. Before the final decision in favour of his patent was 
obtained, the term of his right had neafly expired; and it is af- 
firmed that “more than sixty suits had been instituted in Georgia, 
before a single decision on the merits of his case was obtained.” 
On one occasion, (March, 1795,) his shop, with all its machines and 
papers, was consumed by fire; at another, the sale of his patents 
was so low that it would not defray the expenses of an agent. The 
manufacturers of England condemned the gin on account of its 
greatly injuring the cotton. ‘The first suit at law (1797) was, in 
face of the clearest evidence, decided against him. Efforts to ob- 
tain-a new trial failed. The legislature of South Carolina, after 
negotiating for a purchase of his patent, suddenly annulled the 
contract, and sued the two patentees for the money already paid 
them. The legislature of Georgia pursued a similar policy—though 
it should be added that both States subsequently rescinded these 
unjust acts, and permitted a too tardy justice to be extended to the 
inventor. On December 7, 1803, Mr. Miller, Whitney’s generous 
and enterprising friend and fellow-patentee, died. A gentleman 
who sometimes acted as his legal adviser affirms that never, in all 
his experience of law, did he see a case of such perseverance under 
such persecution; “nor do I believe,” he adds, “that I ever knew 
any other man who would have met them with equal coolness 
and firmness, or who would finally have obtained even the partial 
success which he had. Even now, after thirty years, my head 
aches to recollect his narratives of new trials, fresh disappointments 
and accumulated wrongs.” 

In 1798, impressed with the uncertainty of all his hopes con- 
cerning the cotton gin, he entered upon a new enterprise, the manu- 
facture of arms for the United States. With this object in view, he 
purchased a site for his works, at East Rock, a precipice near New 
Haven. Ascustomarvy with him, he invented his own machinery, 


804 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


and applied it to the improving of the art of manufacturing guns. 
Soon after, the tide of fortune began to turn. Besides obtaining 
large receipts from the Carolinian legislatures, he gained, in De- 
cember, 1807, a most important suit against a trespasser named 
Fort. Judge Johnson, in his decision upon this case, thus charac- 
terizes the influence of@Whitney’s machine upon the manufactur- 
ing and agricultural prospects of Georgia. * With regard to the 
utility of this discovery, [which had been called in question by Fort, } 
the court would deem it a waste of time to dwell long upon this 
topic. Is there a man who hears us, who has not experienced its 
utility? The whole interior of the Southern States was languish- 
ing, and its inhabitants emigrating for want of some object to en- 
gage their attention and employ their industry, when the invention 
of this machine at once opened views to them which set the whole 
country in active motion. From childhood to age it has presented 
to. us a lucrative employment. Individuals who were depressed 
in poverty and sunk in idleness have suddenly risen to wealth and 
respectability. Our debts have been paid off; our capitals have 
increased, and our lands trebled themselves in value. We cannot 
express the weight of the obligation which the country owes to this 
invention. The extent of it cannot now be seen. Some faint pre- 
sentiment may be formed from the reflection that cotton is rapidly 
supplanting wool, flax, silk, and even furs, in manufactures, and 
may one day profitably supply the use of specie in our East 
India trade.”’ 

At the next session of the United States Court, Mr. Whitney 
recovered damages to the amount of thirty-five hundred dollars. 
Soon after, the term of his patent-right expired. He then devoted 
himself almost exclusively to some improvements in the manner of 
manufacturing muskets, in which he was so successful as soon to 
see his method obtain precedence in every considerable armory 
of the United States. The value of these improvements may be 
estimated from the fact that, in 1822, the U. S. Secretary of War, 


Mr. Calhoun, admitted that the government was saving, by his 
e 


FITCH. 21% 805 


alterations, twenty-five thousand dollars per annum at but two 
public armories. ° | ee 

In 1812 Whitney applied to Congress for a renewal of his patent, 
but was unsuccessful. In January, 1817, he married Miss Hen- ~ 
rietta F, Edwards, daughter of Hon. Pierpont Edwards of the Dis 
trict Court of Connecticut. His death took’ place January 8, 1825. 

Mr. Whitney seems to have been endowed with all those qua- 
lities, which render existence a source of enjoyment both to the in- 
dividual and the community. With a high sense of honour, and 
of the sacredness of friendship, with a perseverance in the attain- 
ment of useful objects, and temperance in their use, and with a_ 
strength of will that could keep in subjection feelings naturally 
strong, he was enabled so to exercise his exquisitely mechanical 
genius, that he attained a lasting hold as well upon the admiration and 
gratitude of his country as upon the esteem of his personal-friends. 
In the language of an eminent scholar, when speaking of his monu- 
ment, “ his simple name would have been epitaph enough, with the 
addition perhaps of ‘the inventor of the cotton gin.’ ” 


A man who in genius, in perseverance, and in misfortune, may 
sustain a parallel with Whitney, was Jonn Fircn, one of the most 
distinguished of our early mechanics who turned their attention to 
the consideration of steam as a propeller of vessels. Notwithstand- 
ing his many: labours he was subjected, like Columbus, to see them 
eclipsed by those of a subsequent adventurer in the same tract. It 
is believed by many that the plan of applying steam to the above- 
mentioned purpose, was conceived by several, in different coun- 
tries, in the sixteenth century ; but the honour of the first, actually 
successful experiment of this kind appears, from substantial evi 
dence, to be due to John Fitch. 

Fitch was born, January 21, 1743, (old style,) near Windsor, 
Conn. In a memoir which he bequeathed to the Franklin Library 
Company-of Philadelphia, is contained an ‘account of his early life, 
with a history of his experiments on steam. His father was a 


farmer in good circumstances, a strict Presbyterian, and somewha 
26* 


3806 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


stern in the enforcement of family duties. With regard to every 
thing else, he appears to have been more liberal. Before his twelfth 
year Fitch made little progress in intellectual knowledge, either at 
school or at home; but some signs of a taste for mathematics were 
much earlier visible. He studied what few books he could obtain, 
and at the age of thirteen learned surveying. But so many diffi- 
culties were encountered in this new field, that he was compelled 
to resort to farming, which he followed until about seventeen years 
of age. At that time, receiving the reluctant consent of his father 
to go to sea, he shipped on board of a sloop bound to New York ; 
but not liking his employer, he entered another vessel bound for 
Providence. But for the sea Fitch was not adapted. We next 
find him engaged with a watchmaker near his native town, where 
he stayed more than two years, in a condition of mere drudgery ; at 
leaving; he knew little or nothing of the trade. He then engaged 
in the potash business, at which he was equally unsuccessful. On 
- the 29th of December, 1767, he married Miss Lucy Roberts, whom 
he was soon obliged to abandon on account of a dissimilarity of dis- 
position. After this he forsook his native village, and wandered 
through the Middle States in search of employment. Failing, he 
went to New Brunswick, where he engaged in button making. 
During the Revolution, he repaired arms for the continental army. 
Subsequently he removed to Kentucky, where he was appointed 
surveyor. It was while in the exercise of this profession, that he 
was taken prisoner and subjected to many hardships by the In- 
dians. After his escape, he returned to the Atlantic States. 

In 1785 he began to turn his attention to steam as applicable to 
the propulsion of carriages and vehicles. In 1788, he obtained a 
patent for the application of steam to navigating the waters of the 
States of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, &c. 
His boat, finished amid hardship and privation, which none can ap- 
preciate but those forced to battle without help for despised inno- 
vations, is described by himself in the Columbian Magazine, vol. i. 
1786. “The cylinder is to be horizontal and the steam to work 
with equal force at each end. The mode by which we obtain a 


FITCH. 307 


vacuum is, it is believed, entirely new, as is also the method of letting 
the water into it, and throwing it off against the atmosphere with- 
out any friction. It is expected that the cylinder, which is of 
twelve inches diameter, will move a clear force of eleven or 
twelve hundred weight after the frictions are deduced ; this force 
is to be directed against a wheel eighteen inches in diameter. 
The piston is to move about three feet, and each vibration of it 
gives the axis about forty evolutions. Each evolution of the axis 
moves twelve oars or paddles five and a half féet; they work 
perpendicularly, and are represented by the strokes of a paddle * 
of a canoe. As six of the paddles are raised from the water, 
six more are entered, and the two sets of paddles make their 
strokes of about eleven feet in each evolution. The crank of the 
“axis acts upon the paddles, about one-third of their length from 
their lower ends, on which part of the oar the whole force of the 
axis is applied. The engine is placed in the bottom of the boat, 
‘about one-third from the stern, and both the action and reaction 
turn the wheel the same way.” | 

A day was appointed for the trial of this novel craft. -The trial 
was eminently successful. “A mile was measured,” says the 
inventor, “in Water Street, Philadelphia, and the bounds projected 
at right angles as exactly as could be, to the wharf, where a flag 
was placed at each end, and also a stop-watch. The boat was 
ordered under way at dead water, or when the tide was found 
to be without. diovonelt as the boat passed one flag, it struck, 
and at the same instant the watches were set off; as the boat 
reached the other. end, it was also struck, and the watches in- 
stantly stopped. Every precaution was taken before witnesses ; 
the time was shown to all; the experiment declared tobe fairly 
made, and the boat was found to go at the rate of eight miles 
an hour, or one mile in seven minutes anda half. It afterwards 
went eighty miles in a day.” 

This was the commencement of steam navigation; but Fitch 
possessed neither the funds nor the patronage necessary to im- 
prove upon his first model. In June, 1792, the company which 


808 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


had been formed refused to advance more funds, and Fitch’s. 
boat was laid up. But his faith in the importance of the subject, 
and in its ultimate success, continued unabated. His was the true 
inspiration of genius, which, once acquainted with the principles 
of a design yet in embryo, can confidently utter conclusions upon 
it, that afterwards strike ordinary minds as prophecy. In a 
letter to Mr. Rittenhouse, Fitch says: ‘It would be much easier 
to carry a first-rate man of war by steam than a boat, as we would 
not be cramped for room, nor would the weight of machinery 
be felt. This, sir, will be the mode of crossing the Atlantic in 
time, whether I bring it to perfection or not, for packets and armed 
vessels. I mean to make use of the wind when we have it, and 
in a calm to pursue the voyage at the rate of seven or eight miles 
an hour.”’ | 

Full of these ideas, Fitch went to Europe. But here he was 
unsuccessful, and returned to Boston poor and wretched. Being 
offered a home by Colonel George King, a relative, he seems to 
have passed his time quietly for two or three years, after which 
he went to Kentucky, to obtain some lands gained while a surveyor, 
but which bad subsequently been occupied by strangers. There 
he was seized by fever, and died—requesting that he might repose 
“where the song .of the boatman would enliven the stillness of 
his rosmerplece, and the music of the steam-engine sonthe his 


spirit.” o 

While Fitch was endeavouring to apply steam to the purposes 
of navigation, another of our illustrious men, Oxiver Evans, was 
improving upon its application in the common steam-engine. He 
was born in Newport, Delaware, in 1755 or 1756, and at the age of 
fourteen was apprenticed to a wagon-maker.. While engaged at 
this. occupation, he seems to have thought much upon the possi- 
bility of moving carriages without animal power; and the simple 
circumstance of wadding being discharged from a gun-breach, by 
heating water in it, suggested to him that steam would be the re- 
quisite substitute for horse-power. Experiments strengthened this 


EVANS. 309 


opinion; but the want of means prevented him for a while from 
prosecuting it. st 
At the age of twenty, finding his occupation of making card-teeth 
by hand extremely tedious, he invented a machine by which three 
thousand could be turned off in a minute; but of the benefits aris- 
ing from this he was in a great measure defrauded. T'wo years 
after, he married a Miss Tomlinson, of his native State. We next 
find him engaged with his brothers, who were millers; and here, 
his intuitive knowledge of the requisites of machinery obtained 
ample scope for development. Making flour was at that time a 
process at once clumsy and tedious. Evans set himself to its im- 
provement; and in a short time he had invented and successfully 
applied the Elevator, the Conveyor, the Hopperboy, the Drill and 
the Descender. Their general introduction throughout the country 
was a work of more difficulty. Ignorance, prejudice, and perhaps 
envy, were arrayed against them; and many millers of his native 
State refused to regard his “ rattle-traps’? as improvements, 
even while they were in operation before them. In 1786, he peti- 
‘ tioned the legislature of Pennsylvania for the exclusive right of using 
through that State his improvements in mills and steam-carriages ; 
but he obtained privilege only for the first. A similar petition, pre- 
sented in the following year, to the legislature of Maryland, was 
granted. But this success brought with it no pecuniary assist- 
ance; and as late as the year 1800, a scientific gentleman, named | 
Latrobe, in a paper to the American Philosophical Society, pro- 
nounced Evans’s plans a chimera, and their author a victim of the 
steam mania. 

Yet Evans was nct disheartened. His was a perseverance like 
that of Fitch and Whitney. Temporarily abandoning his project 
of a steam-carriage, he devoted his time to the application of steam 
to the machinery of mills. On this he exerted his strength and 
lavished his fortune. An engine was constructed; but its con- 
struction had absorbed all his means, and he beheld before him a 
life of destitution, But the reward of honest exertion—that reward 
which Fitch had sought in vain—fortune vouchsafed to Evans. 


810 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


In 1804 he constructed for the Philadelphia Board of Health a 
machine for cleaning docks. This he launched into the Schuyl- 
kill, and, notwithstanding great disadvantages, sailed down that 
river to the Delaware, leaving behind all other vessels. Previous 
to launching, he had affixed wheels to it, by which it was run 
through Market street from river to river. When some ridiculed 
the slowness of its motion, Evans replied that, on a wager of three 
thousand dollars, he would construct a machine which, propelled 
by steam, would run against any horse on a level road. He gave 
the name of Oructor Amphibolis to his carriage. It was the first 
American locomotive. 

On the 25th of September, 1804, Evans laid before the Lancaster 
turnpike company a statement concerning the economy of the steam- 
engine, and solicited their assistance in constructing it. No notice 
was taken of his project. 

On the 28th of January, 1808, he obtained from Congress a re- 
newal of his patent for the improvement of flour-mills. Previous 
to this, he was subjected to Many mortifications in consequence of 
the numerous infringements on his old right. An attempt, about 
the same time, to deprive him of the honour of the original inven- 
tion, signally failed. He died at Philadelphia of an inflammation 
of the lungs, April 21, 1819. 

Evans’s exertions were not confined to the agency of steam. 
While at Philadelphia, he conducted an iron foundery. He also 
edited two books—The Young Millwright’s Guide, and the Young 
Steam Engineer’s Guide. Yet the application of steam to motion 
was his favourite object. To this, like Fitch, he directed all the 
energies of his mind; and like Fitch also, his predictions concern- 
ing its subsequent success have been converted by time into pro- 
phecy. ‘The time will come when a carriage will set out from 
Washington in the morning, the passengers will breakfast at Bal- 
timore, dine at Philadelphia, and sup in New York the same day. 
To accomplish this, two sets of railways will be laid, so nearly 
level as not in any way to deviate more than two degrees from a 
horizontal line, made of wood or iron, or smooth paths of broken 


ad 


SLATER. 311 


stone or gravel, with a rail to guide the carriages so that they may 
pass each other in different directions and travel by night as well 
as by day. Engines will drive boats ten or twelve miles per hour, 
and there will be many hundred steam-boats running on the Mis- 
sissippi, as predicted years ago.” 


A character no less distinguished in the history of our early 
manufactories was Samvet Siater, who, though not an American, 
well deserves a place among our mechanics. He was born, June 
9, 1768, at Belper, Derbyshire, England. He received an ordinary 
English education, and, after leaving school, entered the cotton esta- — 
blishment of Jedediah Strutt. Soon after,, when but fourteen years 
old, he lost his father. He continued, however, at the cotton spin- 
ning, and employed all his leisure time in planning rude machinery 
or inventing improvements. These early labours were not lost. 
Cotton spinning was then in its infancy. Almost any alteration 
which an ingenious mind could make in the process of conducting 
it would be an improvement. Slater suggested several suclr to his 
employer. He had liberality enough to adopt them, and honesty 
enough to reward the inventor; and before the young apprentice 
had completed his term of indenture, his influence was felt for good 
throughout the establishment. But while thus passing quietly 
through the first stage of his life, he had been forming plans which 
were to form for him fortune and fame in other circles and another 
world. It was told him that, in America, the demand for machinists 
was great ; in England competition threatened to render the business 
almost useless. He determined to abandon his home and country,and 
to venture on that theatre of action then opening in the land beyond 
the waters. The boldness of the idea was not more remarkable than 
the intrepidity of will which could execute it. He embarked Sep- 
tember 1, 1789, after dropping in the post-office a letter which con- 
veyed to his mother the first intimations which she had of his de- 
sign. In sixty-six days he arrived at New York. 

Owing to the jealousy of government, he had brought with him 

-no plans of machinery; but his indenture soon obtained for him 


812 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


. 


sorne employment. Soon after, he addressed a. letter to Moses 
Brown, of Providence, offering his services as cotton spinner. This 
was eagerly accepted, and he was.admitted to the firm.of Alney, 
Brown, and Slater. Up to this time, the machinery used at 
Brown’s establishment had been rude and unprofitable. Slater 
saw this at a glance, and, with the consent of the firm, set him- 
self to its improvement. After numerous trials, during which his 
- only guide was his memorY, he succeeded in making cards and 
spindles on the English model. These were started December 
21, 1790, and, after some amendments, worked in an admirable 
manner. About this time he boarded at the house of Friend 

‘Oziel Wilkinson, who, in no long period—strange as it may seem — 
under the circumstances—became his father-in-law. The union 
of the young adventurer with Miss Hannah Wilkinson was an 
event in every respect happy and fortunate. 

In 1793, a small factory was built by the firm at Baukiaenh 
From this time their business seems to have steadily increased, 
as thé population increased around them. Slater resorted to the 
admirable plan of instructing the operatives. A Sabbath-school, 
the first in the United States, was established at his house, where 
he sometimes taught in person. 

Mr. Slater’s death occurred in 1835. His character was with- 
out a blemish asa Christian ; without a fault as a man of business. 
Never did any man conform more strictly to the homely maxim— 
a time and place for every thing, and every thing in its place. As 
a machinist, he is among the foremost of our benefactors. — It will 
be remembered, that, when he left England, he had no drawings 
of any sort, but trusted solely to the powers of his memory for con- 
structing complicated machinery. At that period the few men of 
mechanical genius in America had no opportunity for exerting 
their talents; and Slater was not unfrequently at a loss for men to 
work on his wooden models. Yet was his genius adequate to 
every emergency. A single illustration may be given. In 1790, 
after having started his cards and spindles, the teeth of the cards 
fell back, thus rolling up the cotton instead of permitting it to pass 


WHITTEMORE. 313 


through. This was occasioned by the bad quality of the card 
leather, and from the punctures having been made by hand. The 
whole machinery was consequently useless. After a season of 
anxiety, Slater resorted to the expedient of beating the teeth to the 
proper crook with a piece of grindstone. This being done, the diffi- 
culty was obviated. 


With the early history of our cotton manufactures is associated — 
the name of Amos Wuitremorg, the inventor of the card machine. 
He was born April 19, 1759, at Cambridge, Massachusetts. His 
father possessing but slender means to rear a large family, young 
Amos received but a limited education, except in that important 
branch of knowledge—farming. But his talent for science and 
mechanism early evinced itself; and when at the proper age to 
make choice of a trade, he selected that of gun-smithing, Once 
fairly embarked in permanent employment, he devoted to it all his 
energies, employing spare time in planning improvements which he 
could not operate upon during the day. Before his apprenticeship 
had expired, he had thoroughly mastered his trade, and was ad- 
vised by his. employer to enter into the business. How he was 
employed for a few years immediately succeeding his apprentice- 
ship we are not informed. We next see him associated with others 
in the manufacture of wool and cotton cards, then a feeble and not 
very lucrative business. The staples used were placed one by one 
through holes punctured in leather, a work im which only children 
were employed. Whittemore was not long in detecting the room 
for improvement. It occurred to him that a machine might be 
constructed which should not only pierce the holes in the card, but 
draw the wire from the reel and send it through the holes. This 
idea he communicated to his brother, by whom he was encouraged 
to persevere. The generous impulse was not lost. He began the 
execution of the project with an ardour which scarcely permitted 
him time to eat or sleep—which impaired his health and wasted 
his strength. At the end of three months, he had so far progressed 
as to be able to draw the wire, cut and shape it, and pierce the 

27 s 


814 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


holes in the leather. One great difficulty remained, without obvi- 
ating which these improvements were useless. It was to bend the 
wire after it had been placed. After taxing his ingenuity to the 
utmost he finally agreed to abandon the undertaking ; and we are 
assured on good authority that, having done so, he was induced to 
resume it only through a very singular agency. He dreamed one 
night of an addition which would accomplish the requisite labour. 
In the wildness of hope, he set himself on the following day to apply 
it, and was rewarded with complete success. The result was that 
machine which, for the ease and regularity of its complicated opera- 
tions, has been compared by Edward Everett to the workings of the 
human system. | 

The labours of the two brothers had to a great extent been kept 
secret; so that when the machine was finished, there was a good 
prospect of reaping the reward of their labours. On the 2d of June, 
1797, he secured a patent-right for the term of fourteen years. 
Two years after, the inventor sailed to England, to solicit a patent 
from the government there. In this he was unsuccessful, meeting 
only with loss and disappointment, and being finally obliged to ~ 
embark for Boston, much poorer than when he left America. The 
_ vessel was captured by the French, but Whittemore escaped without 
serious inconvenience. ) 

From this time until 1809, Whittemore appears to have been 
engaged principally in the construction of machinery which em- 
bodied his new improvements. But he was straitened by want 
of funds; and the patent was within a few years of its expiration. 
In this dilemma he determined to exhibit before Congress a full- 
size model of his machine, with a view of obtaining a renewal of 
the patent. The result was highly gratifying—an extension of the 
patent to double the term originally named. This was in 1809. 
The fame of Whittemore’s invention, thus encouraged by Congress, 
spread rapidly. Men of fortune and influence directed their atten- 
tion to it. In 1812,the New York legislature incorporated the 
New York Manufacturing Company with a capital of $800,000. 
One of the purposes of its establishment was the purchase of Whit- 


BLANCHARD. 815 


temore’s patent and machinery. This was effected July 20, 1812, 
for the sum of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The com- 
pany then purchased suitable grounds, and proceeded to the erec- 
tion of suitable buildings. The condition of the country at that 
time favoured their operations; and the manufactures, with Whit- 
temore’s machinery, speedily rolled a tide of wealth into the coffers 
of the proprietors. This prosperity closed however with its foster- 
ing cause—the war of 1812. Destitute of government protection, 
the company were unable to compete with their foreign rivals; 
their business dwindled away until 1818, when a sale of the entire 
establishment was made to Samuel Whittemore, the brother, and 
Timothy Whittemore, the son, of the original inventor. Soon after, 
the former became sole proprietor. 

Whittemore took little active interest in his machinery after the 
sale of his patent. In the quiet and seclusion of his estate, near 
Cambridge, he enjoyed a repose, more sweet on account of follow- 
ing the restless activity of younger days. He projected, it is be- 
lieved, an improvement of the orrery, by which that instrument 
would be made to conform very near to the actual planetary move- 
ments; but this was never carried into execution. He died at 
West Cambridge, in 1828.. 


New England, the birth-place of so many of our early mechanics, 
includes among her sons the distinguished Tuomas Biancnarp. 
He was born June 24, 1788, at Sutton, Worcester Co., Massachu- 
setts. Like most men of genius, he gave early indications of the 
talents which afterwards rendered him remarkable. His father, 
being a respectable farmer, was enabled to send him during the 
greater part of the year to a school in the neighbourhood, where 
he acquired such an education as could then be obtained ina New 
England village. But the mind of young Blanchard was not fash- 
ioned for literary pursuits. His out-door time was occupied in 
cutting ships and wind-mills from shingles, in constructing rude 
machinery, and investigating the mechanism of tools and furniture. 
A curious anecdote is told of his first experiment in metals. When 


816 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


ten years old, he accompanied his father to a blacksmith’s shop. ° 
The process of horse-shoeing attracted his attention; he was filled 
with admiration at the sight of two pieces of iron being welded into 
one; the wondrous idea haunted him on his way home ; and his 
mind was bent on performing the operation for himself. Seizing 
an opportunity when the family were absent, he constructed a brick 
forge in an old weave-shop adjoining the yard, made a wedge 
answer for an anvil, burlt his fire, and with the assistance of the 
kitchen bellows, heated some scraps of iron. But his efforts at 
welding failed, for he had as yet no knowledge of the requisite de- 
gree of heat. Not discouraged, he resolved on a special visit to the 
blacksmith’s shop ; but before this could be effected his father returned, 
and the iron business seems to have been for a while laid aside. 

His next experiment was more successful. Having heard of a 
machine for paring apples, he determined to make one for himself. 
The first trials were so far successful as to cause the apple to re- 
volve on a crank; but instead of the cutter paring, it sunk into the 
apple. This difficulty he obviated by fixing a gauge to the knife, 
which regulated its motion, in a manner similar to the action of the 
thumb. The happy result of this juvenile effort gained him much 
celebrity in the neighbourhood ; and, what was of more import- 
ance, awakened him in a measure to a consciousness of his own 
talents. . 

Blanchard now entered in the employment of his elder brother. 
The business was making tacks—a business at that time most 
tedious, discouraging, and unprofitable. Every thing was executed 
by the hand. The tacks were cut from a thin plate, then lifted 
up one by one and placed in a holder, then capped separately by 
a blow of a hammer. ‘To thé ardent activity of young Blanchard 
such a process was insufferable. He soon constructed a machine 
for counting his tacks, a work which had formerly occupied a large 
portion of the operative’s time. This his brother pronounced an 
idle project. It appears that he soon after left the business; but 
not before he had determined that if opportunity should offer, he 
would invent a machine for the making of tacks. He now turned 


‘BLANCHARD. 817 


his attention to the choice of a profession. Happily his father, 
though a sound practical farmer, and anxious to see his son the 
same, was not altogether blind to the use of mechanical arts. Young 
Blanchard was allowed to pursue the bent of his inclinations—as- 
sisted with the wholesome advice to learn thoroughly whatever he 
attempted. Blanchard was faithful to his first love—blacksmithing ; 
but he also acquired a practical knowledge of turning and other 
wood-work. He began business in a manner worthy the promise 
of younger days. At the same time he remembered the resolution 
made while cutting tacks. At eighteen, he began his experiments 
upon the proposed machine; and for six years, amid poverty, dis- 
couragement, and perplexity, the dissuasions of the friendly, and 
the ridicule of the jealous, he laboured at its construction. He 
sticceeded admirably. -By his machine five hundred tacks can 
be made in a minute, superior in appearance to any made by hand. 
After securing his patent he sold the right to a company for five 
thousand dollars. 

Through the solicitation. of a friend, Blanchard now turned his 
attention to some suggested improvements in the manufacture of 
muskets. Then, musket barrels were brought to a uniform external 
finish by grinding; it was desirable to effect this with the lathe. 
To invent the requisite machine, Blanchard now taxed his inge- 
nuity ; and so complete was his success, that, by means of a change 
in the axis of motion, he not only turned the barrel, but also a differ- 
ently shaped portion of the breach. It was exhibited under flatter- 
ing circumstances in the national armory at Springfield, and a eon- 
tract made with the superintendent to erect one at that place. 

A still more important invention was in reserve. A taunting 
remark made by a workman during the exhibition at Springfield, 
had suggested the possibility of the gun-stock itself being turned 
by machinery. From that moment it occupied his attention ; and 
when by a strong effort of mind the whole plan of such a machine 
was brought before him, he burst into the exulting language—« 1 
have got it.” A model was speedily constructed. Not only gun- 
stocks, but spokes of wheels, shoe-lasts, hat-blocks, &c., could be 

27* 


818 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


turned by it. A patent was soon obtained, and contracts made with 
government. He was thus engaged for five years, during which 
he produced numerous other improvements in the manufacture 
of muskets. The patent was renewed in 1833. 

Notwithstanding these multiplied inventions, which were neces- 
sarily fatiguing, we find the attention of Blanchard early directed 
to the subject of steam as a propeller. When his contract with 
government had expired, he constructed a carriage, similar to those 
now used on our railroads. For this he secured a patent. Some 
further inventions were so evidently important even at that time, 
as to receive from a committee of the Massachussets legislature, the 
eulogium of being “ valuable improvements, and peculiarly adapted 
for use in this country :” as such they were “ recommended to all 
the friends of internal improvements.” The people thought other- 
wise. No effort was made to carry forward the scheme in New 

England ; a similar fate attended it in New York; and Blanchard, 
less persevering or less improvident of means than Fitch or Evans, 
abandoned it. 

About this time (1825-6) the numerous difficulties attending the 
navigation of Enfield Falls in the Connecticut began to claim much 
attention. It was accomplished in flat-boats which, among contrary 
winds, were knocked about among shoals and breakers, to the great 
risk of life and property. A company suggested the use of steam- 

boats; and Mr. Blanchard was employed as their agent. The first 
boat was unmanageable. A canal was then built at great expense, 
and a second boat launched. It likewise proved a failure. These 
disasters led to a thorough investigation of the defects in the steam- 
boats then used, and the discovery of several important remedies. 
These were embodied in a model boat, which met the wants of the 
company, ascending ‘the falls with ease, ’nd plying daily between 
Springfield and Hartford. In 1828, he ascended the river through 
the Connecticut valley. His progress was hailed by the acclama- 
tions of thousands who had never seen a steamboat, and whose 
shouts were mingled with the clangor of bells and roar of cannon, 
Lie soon after built a larger boat on a greatly improved plan. 


PERKINS. 319 


Blanchard had now demonstrated the immense importance of 
steam navigation in ascending rapid or shoally rivers. Ina coun- 
try like ours, a fact of this nature once demonstrated, cannot fail soon 
to influence trade generally. Prejudice melted before it ; envy was 
silenced. Contracts for the construction of similar boats followed 
each other with rapidity. Soon one of Blanchard’s boats was 
mounting the falls of the Alleghany; another was navigating the 
Ohio. Yet his prosperity was not unalloyed by mortifications 
brought on by those who endeavoured to infringe upon his patents. 
The one for securing the turning of gun-stocks was obtained only 
by the accidental circumstance of his having shown and described 
the model to two friends previous to applying for the right. In 
1834 he instituted a suit against some infringers on this same patent; 
but owing to a defect in the grant, it failed. A second patent was 
taken out, a second suit instituted, and the court decided for Blan- 
chard. He afterwards stationed himself in New York city, where 
he still continues to pursue his favourite mechanical studies. 


Somewhat similar in inclination to the genius of Blanchard was 
that of Jacop Pzrxrns, so extensively known both in this country 
and Europe. He too is a son of the Pilgrims, and was born July 
1766, at Newburyport, Massachusetts. Of his early life, we know 
little or nothing. At the age of thirteen he was apprenticed toa 
goldsmith, principally it would seem, on account of the talent he 
had evinced for mechanical employments. He gained the esteem 
of his master, and proved his gratitude for it by inventing a machine 
for plating shoe-buckles with gold. When twenty one, he was em- 
ployed in the State mint of Massachusetts, to make dies. This 
flattering prospect encouraged him to attempt a machine for cutting 
and heading nails. He succeeded ; but through the profligacy of his 
associates, lost the rewards of his success, and was reduced to des- 
titution. To extricate himself, he made a stamp to prevent the 
counterfeiting of bank-bills, which, in 1809, was followed by the in- 
vention of the check-plate. These being but partially encouraged, 
he removed to Philadelphia, and thence to England. It was during 


820 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


his somewhat uncertain sojourn in the Middle States, that he effected 
the improvements in hardening and softening steel. 

In England, his attention was directed to a different branch of 
science. It was one of the axioms of philosophy at that time that 
water was incompressible. Reasoning from analogy and from 
the nature of that fluid, Perkins was induced to doubt the correct- 
“ness of this opinion. He commenced a series of experiments upon 
water; by novel and ingenious variations he established the truth 
of his opinion, and invented two instruments, the Bathometer for 
measuring the depth of water, and the Pleometer for determining 
the rate at which a vessel moves through water. Prosecuting his 
experiments with water, he was led to apply steam to the purposes 
of artillery, and to these his celebrity in Europe is in a great 
measure due. The substitution of this powerful agent for gun- 
powder had long been considered practicable on that continent ; and 
several eminent men had been partially successful in the experi- 
ments uponit. But Perkins’ studies were far more bold and import- 
ant than any of his predecessors. Experiments. were made before 
the Duke of Wellington and Prince Polignac. In the first, the 
balls were shattered to pieces when fired against an iron target, 
and when directed against heavy deal boards, one inch thick, passed 
through eleven in succession. Balls were also projected in a lateral 
direction, and in an axis nearly at right angles with that of the dis- 
charge. He calculated this new mode of warfare as follows : “Sup- 
pose two hundred and fifty balls are discharged in a minute by a 
single-barrelled gun, or fifteen thousand per hour; this, for sixteen 
‘hours, would require about fifteen thousand pounds of powder, 
which at seventy shillings per hundred weight, would cost five 
hundred and twenty pounds. But the same number of balls can 
be thrown in succession, and in the same time, for the price of five 
bushels of coal per hour, or about two and a half pounds for fifteen 
hours.” . 

Perkins was now employed in constructing a cannon designed 
_ to throw sixty four-pound-balls in a minute. To the machinery 
by which this was discharged, he attached a contrivance for throws 


BUSHNELL. 821 


ing a stream of lead from the bastion of a fort. But the engineers 
of both France and England pronounced the project impracticable ; 
‘a verdict which most scientific artillerists have confirmed. ; 
One invention of Mr. Perkins, of far more importance than his 
applications of steam, remains to be noticed. By using his methods 
of softening and hardening steel, in connection with the printing 
of calico, he was enabled to transfer designs from plate to plate, 
in the greatest perfection, and the drawing is taken from plate to 
cylinder, or from cylinder to plate, as convenience requires. This 
invention is now in extensive use throughout our country. The 
inventor is still living. . 


Davin Busunett was born in Saybrook, Connecticut, about the 
year 1742. The history of his boyhood is almost a perfect blank. 
He lived with his father, a farmer in very moderate circumstances, 
until twenty-seven years old. His father dying, he removed to the 
town and began preparation for college. His pastor, the Reverend 
John Devotion, encouraged and assisted him. He was also assisted 
by a gentleman named Tally ; and under their kind protection his 
studies proceeded rapidly. In 1771 he entered Yale College. 
We lose sight of him again until 1775, when he graduated. It will 
be remembered that the great struggle between England and her 
colonies had then commenced. 

While immured in the walls of Yale College, Bushnell had 
perfected those plans concerning submarine warfare, to which he 
subsequently owed the greater part of his fame. How they were 
suggested to him is, we believe, unknown; as are also his early 
experiments. ‘The scheme was entirely his own; for of the few 
previous attempts at attaining a similar end he wasignorant. “A 
scheme is said to have been tried in the reign of James the First, 
by Cornelius Drebell, a famous English projector, who, we are told 
by Mr. Boyle, made a submarine vesse! which would carry twelve 
rowers, besides the passengers; and that he had also discovered a 
liquid which had the singular property of restoring the air when 
it became impure by breathing. This last circumstance, with the 


822 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


number of persons enclosed in the machine, and the imperfect state 
of mechanics at the period alluded to, render the whole story ex- 
tremely improbable, though it shows clearly that the idea had been 
entertained, and perhaps some attempt made. Another contrivance 
is mentioned by Mr. Martin, in his Philosophia Britannica, as the in- 
vention of an Englishman, consisting of strong thick leather, which 
contained half a hogshead of air so prepared that none could escape, 
and constructed in such a manner that it exactly fitted the arms and 
legs, and had a glass placed in the fore part of it. When he put 
on this apparatus he could not only walk on the ground at the 
bottom of the sea, but also enter the cabin of a sunken ship, and 
convey goods out of it at pleasure. The inventor is said to have 
-carried on his business for more than forty years, and to have grown 
rich by it.” 

This scheme bears no resemblance to Bushnell’s; and indeed 
there are strong reasons to believe that it never went into execution, 
except in the inventor’s brain. _Bushnell’s application of sub- 
marine navigation tothe destruction of vessels was certainly new. 
His plans were entered into with some spirit, and sanguine expec- 
tations were aroused that they could be rendered effective against 
the British shipping. He first experimented with a small portion 
of powder, to prove that that substance could be ignited under water. 
In a second trial, two pounds of powder were enclosed in a wooden 
bottle and fixed under a hogshead with a two-inch oak plank interven- 
ing. The hogshead was loaded with stones as deep as it could swim; 
a wooden pipe primed with powder descended through the lower 
head of the hogshead, and thence through the plank into the powder 
contained in the bottle. A match applied to the priming caused a 
tremendous explosion, casting a great body of water with the stones 
and ruins many feet into the air. Subsequent experiments, some 
of them on a larger scale, were attended with equal success. 

The machine in which he embodied the results of these experi- 
ments was denominated the Torpedo. Externally it bore some 
resemblance to two upper tortoise-shells of equal size, placed in 
contact, leaving at that part which represents the head of the ani- 


‘BUSHNELL. | —— 323 


mal, a flue or opening sufficiently capacious to contain the operator, 
and air to support him thirty minutes. At the bottom, opposite the 
entrance, was placed a quantity of lead for ballast. The operator 
sat upright,and was furnished with an oar for rowing forward or 
backward, and with a rudder for steering. An aperture at the 
bottom with its valve admitted water for the purpose of descending, 
and two brass forcing-pumps served to eject the water within, when 
necessary, for ascending. The vessel was made completely water- 
tight, furnished with glass windows for the admission of light, 
and with ventilators and air-pipes; while leaden ballast was 
fixed at the bottom so as to render it solid, and obviate all danger 
of oversetting. Behind the submarine vessel was a place above 
the rudder for carrying a large powder magazine. This was made 
of two pieces of oak timber, large enough, when hollowed out, to 
contain one hundred and fifty pounds of powder, with the apparatus 
used for firing it, and was secured in its place by a screw turned 
by the operator. It was lighter than water, that it might rise against 
the object to which it was intended to be fastened. 

Within the magazine was an apparatus constructed so as to run 
any proposed period under twelve hours. After running out the 
time for which it was set, it unpinioned a strong lock resembling a 
gun-lock, which gave fire tothe powder. This apparatus was so 
pinioned that it could not move, until, by casting off the magazine 
from the vessel, it was set in motion, The skilful operator could 
swim so low on the surface of the water as at night to approach 
very near a ship without being discovered. Even above water, he 
could approach either bow or stern with but little danger. He could 
sink very quickly, keep at any necessary depth, and row a great 
distance in any direction without coming to the surface. On rising 
to the top, he could soon obtain a fresh supply of air, and if neces- 
sary, descend again and pursue his course. 

Such is a description of this singular apparatus. Still a difficulty 
remained. To put the machinery in operation required a degree of 
coolness, ingenuity, and daring, greater than that which belongs to 
the generality of men. Bushnell found that much instruction and 


$24 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


many trials were required to render a man of ordinary tact skilfal in 
its management. He first employed his brother; but this gentle- 
man, after making himse}f master of it, was unfortunately taken sick. 
His place was supplied by a sergeant of one of the Connecticut regi- 
ments. After receiving such instructions as time would allow, he 
was directed to try an experiment on the Eagle, a sixty-four gun 
ship, lying in the harbour of New York, and commanded by Lord 
Howe. General Putnam was stationed on the wharf to witness 
the result. vad | 

The sergeant went under the ship and attempted to fix the 
wooden screw into her bottom, but struck, as he supposed, a bar of 
iron, which passed from the rudder hinge, and was spiked under 
the ship’s quarter. Had he moved a few inches, which might 
have been done without rowing, there can be little doubt that he 
would have found wood ; or had the ship been sheathed with copper, — 
it might easily have been pierced. But wanting the skill neces- 
sary to the management of his vessel, the sergeant, in attempting 
to move to another place, passed out from under the ship. After 
vainly groping about for her, he rose to the surface. Daylight was 
now so far advanced that he could not renew the attempt except at 
the risk of being discovered by the sentinels. In returning to New 
York, and while near Governor’s Island, he thought he was disco- 
vered by the British stationed there. 'To avoid danger, he cast off 
his magazine, imagining it retarded him in the swell, which was 
very considerable. The internal apparatus being set to run one 
hour, it blew up at the end of that time. The explosion was tre- 
mendous, a vast column of water being thrown hich into the air, 
much to the astonishment of the enemy. A few other attempts 
upon vessels lying in the Hudson met with similar ill success. 

In 1777, Bushnell attempted to blow up the Cerberus frigate, 
lying off New London, by drawing a machine against her side 
by means of a line. The powder was to explode by means of a 
gun-lock, unpinioned by an apparatus set in motion by striking 
the vessel. The line, buoyed up by pieces of light materials placed 
at regular distances along its length, was perceived by some men 


ECKFORD. $25 


on board a schooner near the Cerberus, and they immediately began 
to haul it in. On feeling the machine, they unconsciously drew it 
on deck, where it soon exploded, shattering the schooner to pieces, 
and killing three men. In December of the same year, Bushnell 
charged a number of kegs with powder, in such a manner as to 
explode on striking against any thing. His design was to float them 
down against the British shipping. Unfortunately for the scheme, 
the proper distance could not be well ascertained ; and, when set 
afloat, the kegs became entangled with the broken ice. In the 
morning they approached nearer. One blew up a boat, others 
exploded against the ice. ‘The consternation of the British sea- 
men and soldiers at this strange spectacle furnished matter for 
Judge Hopkinson’s comic song— The Battle of the Kegs. 

Bushnell’s efforts being unfortunate, his ingenuity did not re- 
ceive the reward it had merited. After wasting his substance for 
iis country, he received nothing in return. At the close of the Revo- 
lution he went to France ; and fora long while his name and history. 
were lost. It was generally supposed that he had perished during 
the commotions of 1789; but, in 1826, his relatives were astonished 
by the news of his death, accompanied by a handsome bequest. Re- 
turning from Europe, he had settled in Georgia, under the name of 
Bush, and there died. 


A character well deserving a place among our illustrious mecha- _ 
nics, was Henry Ecxrorp, born at Irvine, Scotland, March 12, 
1775. After engaging in ship-building at Quebec, he settled at 
New York, where he pursued the same business. He soon ob- 
tained extensive patronage, gradually improving upon former 
plans, until his vessels were known throughout the country as the 
best, both in idea and execution, ever built in America. At the 
opening of the war of 1812, he contracted with government to 
construct war vessels for lake service. The difficulty of the enter- 
prise was great; but with the most praiseworthy perseverance, Eck- 
ford overcame them all, and launched one by one those ships of the 


line, brigs, and war-sloops, which were indispensable to the success 
 Sipsiee * 


826 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


of our border warfare. At the close of the war he diligently pur- 
sued his useful occupation. Among its first fruits at that period 
was the Robert Fulton, a stout-built steam ship, designed to ply be- 
tween New York and New Orleans. Her owner dying suddenly, 
sh® was soon afterwards sold to the Brazilian government, and con- 
verted into a war-sloop of twenty-four guns. 

Eckford now received an invitation from the secretary of the navy 
to be naval constructor at Brooklyn. His object was to secure the 
construction of a model line-of-battle ship for ocean service. Eck- 
ford produced the Ohio; but he seems to have modified the in- 
structions of the board of commissioners, according to his own sense 
of the requisites of war-ships. This produced some vexatious col- 
lisions between the. parties, which resulted in Eckford’s resigna- 
tion. ‘The Ohio was launched but not put in commission for eight- 
een years. But the builder’s reputation was not impaired. . From 
all quarters he received orders for vessels. Frigates and men-ol- 
war were built for different European powers; four sixty-four gun 
ships were finished for Brazil and Columbia, in the space of eight- 
een months, and proposals reached him for building two frigates for 
Greece. By request of President Jackson, he sketched a plan for an 
entire reorganization of the naval department; though much admired, 
it was never put in execution. 

Yet this career of prosperity was not without interruption. By 
the bankruptcy of an insurance company, in which he had invested 
-a large amount of money, he became involved in disheartening 
disputes, and a few of his more malignant enemies went so far as 
to impeach his integrity. The maneuvre redounded little to their 
credit. Eckford proved that he had sacrificed nearly half a million 
to save the company, and, after a thorough investigation, he was 
honourably acquitted. 

In 1831, he built a sloop of war for Turkey, which country he 
soon after visited. Here he was employed by the Sultan Mahmoud, 
as chief naval architect of the empire. He had begun the construction 
of a man-of-war under the most flattering evidences of the Sultan’s 
favour, when an attack of inflammation of the bowels caused his 
sudden death, November 12, 1832. 


FULTON. | 327 





In connection with navigation and steam-power, one illustrious name 
is still to be mentioned—Rosert Futron. Little Britain, in Penn- 
sylvania, was his birth-place, 1765. His early education was 
limited, save that his peculiar genius frequently manifested itself so 
as to surprise his associates. So assiduously did he cultivate his 
talent for painting, that at the age of seventeen he supported him- 
self by it in Philadelphia. At the age of twenty-one, he settled his 
widowed mother upon a-small farm in Washington county, and 
soon after visited England, for the purpose of becoming acquainted 
with Mr. West. The acquaintance was formed; and under the 
instructions of that celebrated painter, he remained for several years. 


828 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


The influence of his patron introduced him to the notice of several 
distinguished artists, and for some time he seems to have pursued 
this art as his settled business. 

At what period Fulton’s attention was first directed to the sub- 
ject of inland navigation, we do not know. He was engaged in 
mechanical projects during the revolutionary war. In 1793 he ex- 
presses confidence in the practicability of applying steam to ships. 
In the year following, he received from the British Society for the 
promotion of Arts and Commerce, a medal and vote of thanks for - 
his improvement in the art of sawing marble. Several other in- 
ventions were his; and about this period, we find him abandoning 
the pencil, for the occupation of engineer. Drafts of his proposed 
or executed improvements were from time to time sent to the 
United States. His motive for attempting some of these, deserve 
notice on account of their enlarged and liberal humanity. The — 
schemes of submarine navigation were designed to render war- 
ships useless, and thus compel nations to live in peace with each 
other, on account of the futility of war. His perseverance to ac- 
complish this plan deserves our admiration. In 1797, he entered 
the family of Mr. Barlow, then at Paris, in whose company he 
experimented in the Seine upon a machine designed to give gun- 
powder a progressive motion under water. The trial failed. Not 
discouraged, he perfected his plan of a submarine boat, and ap- 
plied to the French Directory for funds to execute it. Failing in 
this, he constructed a handsome model, and again applied to the 
Directory. His success was no better than on the former occa- 
sion; and an application to the British government also failed. 
But when the Directory had fallen, Fulton’s proposals were cor- 
dially entertained by Bonaparte, and funds granted him to a con- 
siderable extent. He experimented at Brest, July 3, 1801. Ina 
plunging boat, he performed on the surface all the evolutions of an 
ordinary vessel, plunged to a depth of twenty-five feet, advanced, 
receded and turned at that depth, and remained there half an 
hour. On the 7th of August, by means of air compressed into a 
copper globe, he remained below the surface four hours and twenty 


FULTON. 829 


ee. 


minutes. With his torpedces he struck a vessel at two hundred 
yards distance and shivered her to atoms. This latter invention he 
designed to practise upon the British vessels then lying near the 
coast. But the British admiral seems to have received some in- 
timations of this design, and kept his ships at a safe distance from 
shore. Meanwhile the French government became discouraged 
and withdrew its patronage. 

In 1804 Fulton received an invitation to visit England, which he 
accepted. At an interview with Mr. Pitt and Lord Melville, he 
exhibited and explained his drawings of the torpedo, but had the 
mortification to perceive that it was coldly received. In truth, the 
British ministry, proud of their naval domination and jealous of im- 
provements, seemed to have dreaded the publication of Fulton’s 
plans. Some experiments were permitted, several of which failed ; 
but on the 15th of October, 1805, a completely successful effort 
blew up a Danish brig of two hundred tons burden, lifting her out 
of the water and breaking the hull in two. These experiments, 
established beyond a doubt the practicability of Fulton’s theory. 
Still he remained unrewarded ; and in the winter of 1806 he return- 
ed to his mative country. Here he received some encouragement. 
In the following year, July 20, 1807, he blew up a brig in New 
York harbour. In 1810 five thousand dollars were voted. by Con- 
gress, and Commodore Rodgers prepared the sloop Argus to resist 
the torpedoes. Fulton was ignorant of the means of defence; his 
men were to a great extent ignorant of his own machinery, and the 
Argus escaped. This result seems to have puzzled the commis- 
sioners appointed to superintend the experiment, and led to a long 
letter from Fulton to the Secretary of the Navy. Virtually it ended 
in nothing. 

Fortunately, Fulton was unable to pursue his schemes of sub- 
marine warfare. Higher destinies awaited him; he who was 
abandoned by the French Directory, and coldly passed by, by the 
English, was destined to accomplish a revolution in the social and 
national relations of men, concerning which few at that day dreamed. 
His attention had early been directed to the properties of steam. 

28* 


830 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


Other projects had subsequently occupied his mind; but these 
having failed, he once more turned to the consideration of steam. 
Aided and encouraged by Chancellor Livingston, he built a boat 
for experiment in 1803. This was in France. The French Insti- 
tute and other bodies were invited to see it launched. This launch- 
ing took place in August, and its result was highly gratifying to 
the inventor. He then employed Watt and Bolton of England to 
construct an engine, without intimating its object; and about the 
same time, through the efforts of Mr. Livingston, obtained the passage 
of an act in the New York Legislature, confining the navigation 
of the waters of that State, by fire or steam for twenty years, to 
himself and his patron. He now repaired to New York, and be- 
gan the construction of his first American steamboat. It was 
launched early in 1807, and in August of the same year—a 
proud period for the inventor and his country—was put on trial. 
On that day ignorance, prejudice, and stupidity, bowed to the 
majesty of science. Fulton’s success was complete ; and an agent, 
mighty for good or evil, was roused from its slumber of ages, to be 
subjected to the will of man. The boat which thus commenced 
navigation by steam, was named the Clermont. Soon after cross- 
ing the East River, Fulton made a trip with her to Albany, and this 
soon became her regular track. So repeated were the attempts to 
injure her that the State of New York declared them public crimes, 
punishable by fine and imprisonment. That body further pro- 
tected the inventor, by extending his exclusive right to thirty years. 
Several other boats were built for the Hudson, and in 1809, Fulton 
patented his invention.. Two years later he obtained a patent for 
some improvements; and in 1812, he constructed two ferry boats 
for the Hudson river. Each consisted of two hulls, joined by a 
bridge, and so constructed as to move backward or forward with 
equal facility. 

In 1814 Fulton was employed by government, to build one or 
more floating batteries, for the defence of the national waters. 
The first of these was launched in October of that year, amid 
thousands of spectators; and in the following May the engine was 


: RITTENHOUSE. 331 


put on board. The vessel was tried July 4th, and found to move 
at the rate of five miles an hour. 

While this work was in progress, Fulton was engaged in plan- 
ning a submarine boat, for government use. His model was ap- 
proved, and he began the work. It was never finished. Early 
in 1815, he caught cold by long exposure on the ice; the violence 
of the attack broke through his constitution, and baffled the exer- 
tions of science. On the 24th of February, 1815, he terminated his 
useful and honourable life, in the fiftieth year of his age. 





David Rittenhouse. 


The American astronomer, Rirrennouse, whose celebrity has 
given a name to his native town, was born April 8, 1732, near 
Germantown, Pennsylvania. His early days were spent at the 
plough; the construction of which seems to have been more inter- 
esting to him than its use.- At the age of seventeen, and without 
having received any instruction in mathematics, he constructed a 


832 ’ ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


wooden clock. This caused his father to place him under the in- 
structions of a mathematical instrument maker, with whom he re- 
mained until twenty-one. When released from the labours of the 
day, he studied such mathematical works as were within his reach. 
Before the age of twenty-one he could read Newton’s Principia, 
and had invented that ingenious piece of mechanism the orrery. 
His instrument differed from all others having the same object, on 
account of its pointing out with accuracy the positions of the pri- 
mary and secondary planets, for any time, past, present, or future. 
Two he made with his own hands, one of which is now owned by 
the University of Pennsylvania, the other by Princeton College. 
In 1769 he was appointed by the American Philosophical Society, 
one of a committee to observe the transit of Venus over the sun’s 
disc, June 3. The result was so creditable to his professional know- 
ledge, that he was employed by government in several important 
geodesic operations. In 1779, we find him appointed by the Penn- 
sylvania Legislature, as one of the commissioners for adjusting the 
territorial dispute between that State and Virginia. In 1786, he 
was appointed on a similar business with New York. In the follow- 
ing year, he was a member of the commission for adjusting the boun- 
dary between the latter State and Massachusetts. In 1782, he was 
elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
In 1791 he succeeded Dr. Franklin in the presidency of the Ame- 
rican Philosophical Society. In 1795 he was made a member of 
the Royal Society of London. © f 

These were some of the laurels bestowed by science ; others were 
given by government. In 1777, he was appointed Treasurer of 
Pennsylvania, in which office he continued until 1789. In 1792 he 
received the directorship of the U. 8. Mint. Soon after, his consti- 
tution, naturally delicate, began to decline, and he died on the 26th 
of June, 1796: “In private life,” says the American Encyclopedia, 
‘‘ Doctor Rittenhouse exhibited all those mild-and amiable virtues, 
by which it is adorned. Asa husband, a father, and a friend, he 
was a model of excellence. Immediately after his decease, the 
American Philosophical Society decreed him the honour of a public 


THOMPSON. 333 


eulogium; and this duty was executed in the ablest manner by 
Doctor Rush.’ 







AMY i RNY 
nnn 


7, 


iy 





l 


— 


Count Rumford. 


As a patron of learning, Bensamin Tompson, afterwards Count 
Rumford, deserves a notice in this connection. He was born at 
Wobury, New England, 1752, and when quite young studied 
Natural Philosophy under the professor of Cambridge College. 
Subsequently raised to independence by a fortunate marriage, he 
became major of militia; and when the Revolution broke out, em- 
ployed the knowledge thereby obtained in aiding the mother 
country. At first he was employed under Lord George Germaine ; 
afterwards he raised a regiment of dragoons in New York and be- 
came its colonel. In 1784, he was knighted in England, and re- 


834 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


ceived an appointment. Afterwards we find him in the service 
of the Elector-palatine of Bavaria, by whom he was much esteemed. 
For his services in the cause of pauper reformation, he was created 
lieutenant-general, and Count Rumford. In 1799, he returned to 
England, where he employed his time in philosophical researches, 
especially upon the nature of heat. He then suggested the plan 
of the Royal Institution, and aided in carrying it out. In 1802, he 
removed to Paris, and married the widow of Lavoisier, from whom 
however he soon separated. He then engaged in the study of 
chemistry and experimental philosophy, living in a style of happy 
retirement, and affording assistance to several in the same pursuits. 
He died August, 1814. His papers on scientific subjects are nu- 
merous, besides four volumes of essays, chiefly philosophical. At 
his death, a daughter by his first wife was living in Boston. 


The distinguished artist Samven Fintey Brerse Morss is still 
living, and has his residence in the State of New York. He isa 
son of the late Rev. Jedediah Morse, D. D., a clergyman of dis- 
tinction, formerly of Charlestown, Massachussetts. Mr. Morse gra- 
duated at Yale College, in 1810. For many years he had occu- 
pied an enviable reputation, both in Europe and America, as a 
painter. Within a few years, he has produced a wonder-working 
and important machine—the Llectro-Magnetic Telegraph—which 
is now in successful operation over thousands of miles in various 
States of the Union ; and the time is not far distant when lines will 
be established between all the important cities of the country. 

The following is a description of Mr. Morse’s machine, for which 
we are indebted to Dr. Comstock’s System of Natural Philosophy. 

The temporary magnet a, enveloped with its insulated copper 
wire, is fastened to the wooden frame }b, g, by means of cords or 
otherwise. : 

This frame also supports the standard h, which sustains the re- 
volving drum f, on which the paper to receive the emblematical 
alphabet is fixed, m being the edge of the paper. 

To the arm g, is appended the lever c, of wood, which has a slight 


MORSE. 885 




















— 
df 
© aie £ 
re silt : Sea 
e- 1 Ii 
7 











Principle of Morse’s Telegraph. 
vertical motion, in one direction by the steel spring d, and in the 
other, by the armature of soft iron, e. 

The two poles of the magnet rest in two little cups of mercury, 
into which are also to be plunged the poles of the magnetic battery, 
(not shown in the drawing,) of which p is the positive, and n the 
negative. The steel point 2, attached to the lever, is designed to 
mark the telegraphic alphabet on the paper. 

Having thus explained the mechanism, we will now show in 
what manner this machine acts to convey intelligence from one 
part of the country to another. 

It is necessary to observe that when a bar of soft iron surrounded 
by insulated copper wire, as shown at a, has its two poles con- 
nected with the poles of a galvanic battery, the iron instantly be- 
comes a magnet, but returns to its former state, or ceases to be mag- 
netic, the instant the connection between them ceases. 

To break the connection, it is not necessary that both of the poles 
should be detached, the circuit being broken by the separation of one 
only. 

Supposing, then, that n and p are the poles of such a battery, on 
placing n into the cup of mercury, the wires from the soft iron 
being already there, the armature e is instantly attracted, which 
brings the point 7 against the paper on the revolving wheel f. Ifn 


836 ILLUSTRIOUS MECHANICS. 


is instantly detached after the point strikes the paper, then only a 
dot will be made, for the magnetic power ceasing with the break- 
ing of the circuit, the spring d withdraws the point from the paper 
the instant the pole is removed. 

If a line is required in the telegraphic alphabet, then the pole 
is kept longer in the vessel of mercury, and as the alphabet con- 
sists of dots, and lines of different lengths, it is obvious that writ- 
ing in this manner cannot be difficult. The understanding of the 
alphabet is another matter, though we are informed that this may 
be done with facility. 

The marks of the point 7, are made. by indenting the paper, the 
roller on which it is fixed being made of steel in which a groove 
is turned, which the paper is forced into by the point. The paper 
is therefore raised on the under side like the printing for the blind. 

The roller fis moved by means of cloek-work, having a uniform 
motion, consequently the dots and lines depending on the time the 
point is made to touch the paper, are always uniform, 

Now with respect to the distance apart at which the temporary 
magnet and writing apparatus, and the battery, are placed, experi- 
ment shows that it makes little difference with respect to time. 
‘Thus, suppose the battery is in Hartford, and the magnet in New 
York, with» copper or iron wires reaching from one to the other. 
Then the telegraphic writer at Hartford, giving the signal by means 
of an alarm bell, that he is ready to communicate, draws the atten- 
tion of the person at New York to the apparatus there,—the gal- 
vanic action being previously broken by taking one of the poles 
from the battery at Hartford. 

If now we suppose a letter a is signified by a single dot, he at 

Hartford dips the pole in the cup of the battery, and instantly at 
New York the soft iron becomes a magnet, and a dot is made on 
the paper, and so, the rest of the alphabet. 

The wires are carried through the air by being wound around 
glass caps supported by iron L. shaped arms, which are driven into 
wooden posts about 20 feet from the ground. These posts are 
erected for this purpose, chiefly on the railway lines, from 50 to 


100 feet apart. 








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LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS 





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Call Number: 
806551 T15 
Foucaud, &. F7513 
The book of 1845 
illustrious mechanics. 
N° 806551 
T15 
Foucaud, #. F7513 


The book of 1845 
illustrious mechanics, 


PHYSICAL 
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